THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


A  GUIDE  TO 

GOOD    ENGLISH 


BY 

ROBERT  PALFREY  UTTER,  Ph.D. 

ASSOCIATE  PROFESSOR  OF  ENGLISH 
IN  AMHERST  COLLEGE 


HARPER  y  BROTHERS   PUBLISHERS 

NEW    YORK     AND     LONDON 


COPYRIGHT     1914.    BY   HARPER  a   BROTHERS 
PRINTED    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES    OF    AMERICA 


} 


CONTENTS 


PAoa 

Introduction v 

Symbols  Used  in  Coreecting  Themes xi 

PART   I 
WORKMANSHIP 

CHAP. 

I.  Good  Use       1 

II.  Manuscript 3 

III.  Punctuation 5 

IV.  Capitalization .  16 

V.  Spelling 21 

VI.  Division  of  Words — Syllabication 27 

VII.  Abbreviations 31 

VIII.  Figures 33 

IX.  Grammar  and  Idiom 35 

X.  Sentences 42 

XI.  Paragraphing    . 61 

XII.  Diction — Choice  of  Words 67 

XIII.  LETTER-WlUTINa 82 

PART   II 
METHOD 

Collecting  Material         93 

Intellectual  Honesty 93 

Form  of  References       94 

iii 


CONTENTS 

CHAP.  PAQB 

How  TO  Find  Material 96 

Note-Taking       98 

I.  Form 98 

II.  Lectures       100 

III.  Recitations 103 

IV.  Reading 104 

II.      Organizing  Material 107 

I.  The  Expository  Outline 107 

II.  The  Argumentative  Outune  or  Brief  .    .    .  112 
The  Three  Parts  op  the  Brief 114 

PART  III 
PROSODY   AND  GRAMMAR 

I.  Prosody 121 

Kinds  op  Feet 123 

Kinds  of  Lines 125 

Practice  of  Versification 128 

Kinds  of  Stanzas 130 

The  Sonnet 135 

Blank  Verse 136 

Free  Verse 136 

II.  Outline  for  Review  op  Grammar 138 

Inflection 140 

Syntax 146 

III.  Paradigm  of  a  Strong  Verb 159 

IV.  Classified  Exercises 165 

V.  Miscellaneous  Examples  of  Faulty  Engush     .    .  172 
Index 181 


INTRODUCTION 

This  book  is  ofiFered  with  the  sympathy  of  a 
fellow-craftsman  to  all  who  seek  self-expression 
through  words.  It  is  based  on  the  experience  of  a 
number  of  years  spent  in  handling  the  manuscript 
that  comes  into  the  office  of  the  newspaper,  the 
magazine,  the  book  publisher,  and  that  which  is 
written  in  college  classes  of  all  sorts,  from  those 
composed  of  Freshmen  to  those  composed  of  more 
or  less  practised  writers  and  teachers  who  seek  from 
the  college  special  help  of  some  kind.  On  the  basis 
of  such  experience  I  have  selected  the  material  for 
this  book.  In  it  I  have  tried  to  give  answers  to  the 
questions  which  arise  oftenest.  It  is  not  intended  to 
be  a  compendium  of  all  knowledge  relating  to  our 
work,  but  merely  a  useful  arrangement  of  the  prin- 
ciples, and  a  few  rules,  which  we  must  use  every 
day,  and  which  we  must  have  either  at  our  fingers' 
ends  or  at  our  elbows.  In  general  I  have  presented 
principles  as  well  as  rules,  and  have  tried  to  steer  as 
free  a  course  as  one  can  between  dogmatism  and 
prolixity.  Sometimes,  however,  to  avoid  discussion 
which  would  be  out  of  place  in  a  mere  handbook,  I 
have  been  content  to  point  a  safe  path  without 
explanation. 


INTRODUCTION 

For  all  readers  I  hope  the  index  at  the  end  of  the 
volume  will  make  readily  accessible  all  the  mate- 
rial the  book  contains.  For  beginners  in  academic 
classes,  who  often  cannot  find  what  they  need  because 
they  do  not  know  it  by  any  name,  the  special  value 
of  the  book  is  supposed  to  lie  in  the  indexing  of  the 
common  faults  under  the  symbols  which  teachers 
commonly  use  in  pointing  them  out.  The  symbol 
which  points  out  the  student's  error  will,  I  hope, 
almost  automatically  direct  him  to  the  passage  in 
the  book  which  will  diagnose  the  fault  and  indicate 
the  remedy.  The  plan  is  intended  to  relieve  teachers 
of  the  burden  of  composition  work  too  elementary 
for  college  classes,  and  to  save  time  from  the  dis- 
cussion in  full  convocation  of  the  class  of  errors  into 
which  sixty  per  cent,  never  fall,  but  which  the  rest 
exemplify  year  after  year  with  unfailing  regularity. 
Beyond  these  hardy  perennials  of  our  ''decomposi- 
tion and  illiterature "  I  have  not  attempted  to  go. 
This  is  not  a  complete  collection  of  all  the  seventy 
times  seven  deadly  sins  of  English  composition,  but 
merely  those  vulgar  errors  which  experience  has 
shown  me  are  the  true  pseudodoxia  epidemica  of  the 
writer's  craft,  so  put  together  and  explained  that  the 
seeker  may  easily  find  what  he  wants,  and  find  it 
practically  helpful. 

Without  prejudice  to  any  useful  purpose  which 
the  book  may  be  made  to  serve,  I  suggest  in  what 
follows  the  work  I  have  designed  it  to  perform  in 
college  classes. 

Let  the  teacher  begin  with  the  assimiption  that  in 
so  far  as  sins  against  elementary  principles  are  con- 

vi 


INTRODUCTION 

cerned,  each  student  is  innocent  untU  he  has  proved 
himself  guilty.  Change  the  character  of  the  pre- 
scribed course  in  English  for  Freshmen  from  one  in 
composition  to  one  which  emphasizes  primarily  the 
study  of  literature.  Choose  literary  material  which 
is  stimulating,  study  it  intensively  with  reference  to 
the  ideas  it  contains,  and  hold  students  to  exactness 
of  comprehension,  thought,  and  expression.  At  each 
meeting  of  the  class  have  a  written  recitation  of 
five  or  ten  minutes,  answering  some  question  on  the 
day's  lesson,  usually  a  textual  question  or  a  question 
of  fact,  with  the  object  of  finding  out  whether  the 
student  has  read  the  assignment  and  understood  it. 
Then,  having  had  a  recitation  from  each  student, 
the  teacher  may  feel  free  to  devote  the  rest  of  the 
hour  to  a  discussion  of  the  ideas  in  the  lesson,  or  to 
any  exercise  which  will  make  the  students  feel  the 
value  of  what  they  are  reading.  Once  in  two  or 
three  weeks  there  may  be  written  a  theme,  prefer- 
ably in  class,  on  topics  that  demand  thought,  some- 
thing more  than  mere  exercise  of  memory.  As  many 
as  possible  of  his  papers  should  be  returned  to  the 
student,  who  should  be  left  to  study  the  mistakes 
marked  in  his  papers  by  the  passages  in  the  book 
to  which  the  symbols  point  him.  The  burden  of 
training  himself  in  elementary  matters  which  he 
should  have  learned  in  school  should  be  thrown  on 
him.  His  progress  should  be  measured  by  his 
improvement  rather  than  by  his  skill  in  rewriting 
after  specific  errors  have  been  pointed  out  to  him. 
On  the  basis  of  these  papers  pick  out  as  early  as 

possible  the  students  who  are  "deficient  in  spelling, 

vii 


i> 


INTRODUCTION 

punctuation,  sentence  and  paragraph  structure,"  and 
organize  them  into  a  special  class,  meeting  once  a 
week  at  least  for  drill  on  elementary  matters.  At 
the  end  of  the  first  half-year  discharge  as  many  of 
these  as  are  cured,  but  continue  work  with  the  rest 
by  means  of  a  fifteen-minute  conference  for  each  man 
once  a  fortnight  on  a  theme  which  he  writes  for  the 
purpose,  or  on  any  of  his  written  work. 

Classes  and  conferences  for  delinquents  ought  to  be 
used  for  all  men  in  college  who  need  the  work,  even 
for  those  who  are  not  taking  courses  in  English. 
Papers  written  in  other  classes  should  be  periodically 
examined  by  teachers  of  English,  and  the  writers  who 
habitually  write  inaccurately  should  be  summoned 
to  conferences  or  placed  in  the  extra  class  until  they 
show  improvement.  Accuracy  in  English  should  be 
required  for  graduation  even  more  strictly  than  a 
reading  knowledge  of  French  and  German. 

The  effect  of  this  should  be  to  make  the  student 

himself  strive  to  correct  the  deficiencies  of  his  earlier 

education  and  to  master  English  as  a  subject  rather 

than  to  pass  it  *'off"  (his  mind)  as  a  course.     The 

plan  tends  to  concentrate  the  effort  of  the  teacher  on 

those  who  need  it  and  to  inculcate  the  art  of  orderly 

thought,  and  hence  of  clear  and  accurate  expression, 

in   the   whole   class,   along   with   the   inspirational 

teaching  of  literature.    I,  for  one,  prefer  to  spend 

time  in  class  on  literature  rather  than  on  dangling 

participles  and  pathetic  fallacies.     To  dwell  for  ever 

on  these  is  too  much  like  the  ''Philadelphia  Claver- 

house"  of  Mr.  E.  S.  Martin,  who  declares  of  young 

people  brought  up  according  to  his  ideas: 

viii 


INTRODUCTION 

"  They'll  be  true,  they'll  be  brave,  they'll  be  gentle  and  kind, 
Because  they'll  have  Satan  for  ever  in  mind." 

I  hope  also  that  this  book  will  have  real  value  to 
teachers  of  literature  courses  who  cannot  give  special 
attention  to  the  form  and  workmanship  of  the  papers 
which  their  students  write. 

Robert  Palfrey  Utter. 

Amherst  College,  June,  1914. 


SYMBOLS  USED  IN  CORJaECTING  THEMES 

The  numbers  are  those  of  pages  on  which  the 
faults  are  explained  and  methods  suggested  for 
correcting  them. 

C  Fault  in  coherence,  38,  44,  45-51,  52,  53. 

cap.  Change  to  a  capital  letter;  capital  letter 

needed,  16-20. 
ch.  Fault  in  choice  of  words.    See  C.W. 

Co.  Fault  in  coherence.    See  C. 

Coll.  CoUoquial,  70,  71,  79,  81. 

Con.  or  Cst.  Faulty  construction,  40,  41,  42,  43,  48, 

49,  50,  56. 
C.W.  Fault  in  choice  of  words,  39,  67-81. 

Diet.  Fault  in  choice  of  words,  or  diction. 

See  C.W. 
E  Not  English,  35,  72,  73,  74,  75,  76,  77, 

78,  79,  80,  81. 
E  or  Em.  Fault  in  emphasis,  or  mass,  44,  53-58. 

Fig.  Fault  in  use  of  figurative  language,  69, 70. 

F.  W.  Fine  writing,  68,  69,  71,  72,  74. 

G.  or  Gr.  Fault  in  grammar,  35-41,  42,  43,  71,  72, 

73,  74,  75,  76,  77,  80. 
Hack.  Trite  or  hackneyed  diction.    See  Trite. 

I  Impropriety,  35. 

I  or  111.  Illogical. 

Ital.  Italics  needed,  14,  15. 

K  Awkward,  clumsy,  harsh. 

L  Impropriety  in  language.    See  E. 

xi 


SYMBOLS  USED  IN  CORRECTING  THEMES 


L 

l.c. 

Lo. 

M 

Mass 

MS. 

no  cap. 

O 

P 

quotes 

R 

S 
S.C. 

See  diet. 

Sp. 

S.U. 

T 

T  or  Tenses 

Tg. 

tr. 

Trite 

U 

V 

w 
w 

Who?  Which?  What? 

A 

X 

[] 

IfU 


Bad,  loose  sentence,  44,  54. 
Lower  case;  change  to  small  letter,  16-20. 
Bad,  loose  sentence.    See  L. 
Metaphor;  fault  in  the  use  of  figurative 

language,  69,  70. 
Fault  in  emphasis,  or  mass,  44,  53-58. 
Bad  or  illegible  manuscript,  3,  4. 
Change  to  small  letter,  16-20. 
Obscure. 

Fault  in  punctuation,  5-15,  42. 
Fault  in  the  use  of  quotation  marks,  or 

quotation  marks  needed,  14,  15. 
Redundancy,  or  repetition,  53,  58-60. 
Faulty  sentence,  42,  43. 
Sentence  lacks  coherence,  44,  45-51,  52, 

53. 
Consult  the  dictionary  on  this  word,  1, 

2,  21. 
Fault  in  spelling,  21-26,  77. 
Sentence  lacks  unity,  44, 45, 49, 50, 51-53. 
Bad  taste,  71. 

Fault  in  the  use  of  tenses,  152-154. 
Tautological,  58-60. 
Transpose,  change  order,  27,  28,  50,  53, 

55. 
Trite  or  hackneyed  diction,  67-69. 
Lack  of  unity,  44,  49,  50,  51-53. 
Vague,  69. 
Weak,  39,  56. 
Wordy,  58-60. 
Obscure  or  ambiguous  use  of  pronouns, 

38. 
Printer's  "dele,"  omit. 
Something  omitted. 
Obvious  fault. 

Passage  in  brackets  to  be  omitted. 
Begin  a  paragraph  here,  61-63. 
Paragraph  lacks  unity,  63. 


XII 


SYMBOLS  USED  IN  CORRECTING  THEMES 

^  C  or  Co.  Paragraph  lacks  coherence,  64. 

i[  E,  Em.,  or  Mass  Paragraph  lacks  emphasis,  or  mass,  66. 

=  ?  Means  what?    Query  as  to  meaning. 

II  Cst.  Violation  of  parallel  structure,  49. 

1,  2,  3,  etc.  Used  to  point  out  better  order  of  words, 

clauses,  sentences,  or  paragraphs. 

?  Query  as  to  facts. 

H  Leave  more  space  here. 

I  - 1  Insert  hyphen,  28-30. 


Part    I 


WORKMANSHIP 


A    GUIDE 
TO    GOOD    ENGLISH 


GOOD   USE 

The  principles  discussed  in  the  following  pages 
are  based  on  what  is  known  as  ''good  use."  It 
is  usually  defined  as  "the  usage  of  a  majority  of 
the  best  writers  and  speakers."  Inasmuch  as  it  is 
easier  to  determine  what  such  writers  and  speakers 
do  710^  say  than  what  they  do  say,  good  use  is  most 
often  set  down  in  negative  terms.  The  general 
principle  is  that  of  avoiding  criticism  by  doing  noth- 
ing to  which  those  whom  you  wish  to  please  might 
object.  In  the  attempt  to  determine  good  use  with- 
out a  guide,  it  is  easy  to  go  astray.  Most  of  us  feel 
that  no  right-minded  person  ought  to  object  to  the 
forms  to  which  we  have  been  accustomed.  Many 
feel  that  any  form  of  expression  which  they  have 
seen  in  print  must  be  correct,  or  that  the  mere  in- 
clusion of  a  word  in  a  dictionary  gives  it  the  sanction 
of  good  usage.  But  no  one  person,  however  well 
educated,  is  absolutely  pure  in  written  or  spoken 
diction.  Newspapers  are  habitually  glaring  in  their 
ofifenses,  and  much  other  printed  matter,  including 

many  classes  of  books,  is  scarcely  better.  A  dictionary 

1 


A  GUIDE  TO   GOOD   ENGLISH 

la  a  good  guide  so  far  as  it  goes  provided  its  use  is 
understood,  but  it  is  necessary  to  be  sure  whether  or 
not  it  characterizes  a  word  as  "colloquial,"  ''slang," 
"obsolete,"  or  "local  U.  S.,"  or  something  equally 
undesirable.  The  mere  inclusion  of  a  word  in  a  dic- 
tionary indicates  nothing  more  than  that  it  exists; 
read  what  is  said  of  it  to  find  out  how  it  should  or 
should  not  be  used. 

To  violate  the  rules  of  good  usage  in  spoken  or 
written  discourse  is  to  place  a  barrier  between  yourself 
and  those  whose  attention  you  probably  wish  most 
to  gain.  To  avoid  such  violations  entirely  in  writing 
the  first  draft  is  hardly  possible  for  the  most  experi- 
enced writer,  even  though  habitual  observance  of  the 
rules  tends  to  a  high  degree  of  accuracy.  But  in 
revision  the  rules  may  be  consciously  and  carefully 
applied,  with  the  hope  of  making  the  work  as  accurate 
as  is  humanly  possible.  For  this,  hardly  less  impor- 
tant than  knowledge  of  the  rules  is  the  ability  to  pick 
out  violations  of  them  in  your  own  work.  To  do  so 
requires  unremitting  vigilance,  which  is  the  secret  of 
the  "proof-reader's  eye."  At  the  second  reading  the 
work  is  altogether  too  likely  to  slip  smoothly  through 
the  groove  in  the  brain  that  it  made  for  itself  in  its 
creation,  without  catching  at  any  point,  however 
rough  and  unfinished.  The  typewriter  is  a  help  in 
preventing  this;  its  work  is  less  a  part  of  you  than 
is  that  of  your  pen.  It  may  be  helpful  to  lay  the 
work  aside,  when  you  can,  until  you  have  so  far 
forgotten  it  that  it  looks  new  when  you  return  to  it. 
There  is  no  real  safeguard,  however,  except  unflagging 
attention  in  revision. 


n 

MANUSCRIPT 

^  MS. 

Manuscript  is  most  often  criticised  on  the  score 
of  illegibility.  For  this  there  is  no  excuse,  not  even 
haste,  for  he  who  writes  illegibly  in  order  to  write 
rapidly  wastes  all  the  time  he  spends  on  the  task. 
Anyone  who  can  write  at  all  can  write  legibly  if  he 
will  take  time  to  do  so.  If  your  writing  is  ''natu- 
rally" illegible,  learn  to  use  the  typewriter,  and  there- 
after write  nothing  with  the  pen  which  you  can 
possibly  write  on  the  machine.  Three  months' 
daily  practice  will  enable  you  to  write  faster  with  the 
machine  than  you  could  before  with  the  pen,  and 
your  work  will  always  be  neat  and  legible.  If  you 
must  write  with  a  pen,  avoid  all  flourish  and  orna- 
ment; strive  for  plainness,  neatness,  and  uniformity. 
Be  generous  in  spacing  words,  sentences,  lines,  para- 
graphs, and  margins. 

On  everything  you  write  leave  a  margin  on  the  left 

of  from  an  eighth  to  a  quarter  of  the  width  of  the 

sheet,  never  less  than  an  inch,  and  usually  nearer  two 

inches.     Indent  paragraphs  uniformly  about  half  an 

inch  beyond  the  margin.     Between  the  end  of  one 

sentence  and  the  beginning  of  the  next  leave  three 

times  the  space  you  leave  between  words  in  the 

3 


A  GUIDE  TO  GOOD  ENGLISH 

sentence.  If  a  sentence  ends  before  the  end  of  the 
line,  do  not  leave  the  rest  of  the  line  blank  except  at 
the  end  of  a  paragraph. 

Always,  if  you  have  the  choice,  use  unruled  paper. 
Begin  your  work  about  a  third  of  the  distance  from 
the  top  of  the  sheet,  and  let  your  title  stand  in  the 
middle  of  the  space  above  the  first  line. 

Use  pencil  if  you  must  for  jottings  of  your  own, 
but  never  ofifer  manuscript  so  written  to  anyone  else. 


Ill 

PUNCTUATION 


Marks  of  punctuation  are  aids  to  expression;  they 
ehould  be  written  with  the  sentence  as  an  integral 
part  of  it,  not  inserted  as  an  afterthought  as  if  in 
unwilhng  deference  to  an  arbitrary  convention. 
Ease  and  accuracy  in  punctuation  cannot  be  acquired 
by  memorizing  rules.  Learn  rather  in  what  ways 
the  marks  aid  expression,  and  take  advantage  of 
them,  as  the  speaker  takes  advantage  of  voice  in- 
flection, intonation,  facial  expression,  gesture,  which 
the  writer  cannot  use.  To  read  a  sentence  aloud  as 
you  wish  it  to  be  read  will  often  help  to  determine  the 
punctuation,  not  only  by  showing  where  the  pauses 
are,  but  by  showing,  through  voice  inflection,  the 
distinction  (essential  to  correct  punctuation)  between 
the  restrictive  and  the  modifying  clause.  In  speech, 
''The-man-who-had-the-rifle  killed  the  deer,"  and 
"The  man,  who  had  the  rifle,  killed  the  deer,"  are 
expressions  so  different  that  they  would  never  be  con- 
fused. 

Terminal  Punctuation  for  All  Sentences 

The  end  of  a  declarative  sentence  is  marked  by  a 
period;  that  of  an  interrogative  sentence  by  an  in- 


A   GUIDE   TO   GOOD   ENGLISH 

terrogation  mark;  that  of  an  exclamatory  sentence  by 
an  exclamation  mark.  A  long  complex  or  compound 
sentence  containing  interrogative  or  exclamatory  as 
well  as  declarative  clauses,  should  end  with  the  mark 
of  punctuation  which  to  the  writer  seems  to  express  the 
purport  of  the  whole.  In  many  cases  such  sentences 
are  best  separated  into  two  or  more  which  may  be 
logically  punctuated. 

What  a  state  of  affairs  is  this,  when  the  ad- 
ministration of  justice  rests  with  an  ignorant, 
petty-minded  boor,  whose  only  idea  of  the  power 
of  the  law  is  the  opportunity  to  serve  his  own 
•  interests  by  persecuting  his  opponents  on  the 
merest  technicalities,  while  at  the  same  time  he 
allows  his  friends  to  violate  every  principle  of 
right,  and  every  law  in  the  commonwealth. 

What  a  state  of  affairs  is  this!  The  adminis- 
tration of  justice  rests  .  .  . 

Will  you  kindly  send  me  by  way  of  New  York, 
as  soon  as  possible,  three  hundred  and  fifty  feet 
of  galvanized  iron  pipe,  extra  heavily  galvanized, 
in  twenty-foot  lengths,  threaded  at  each  end, 
and  with  one  coupler  for  each  length? 

Note  that  this  sentence  is  technically  interrogative, 
and  may  be  closed  with  an  interrogation  mark  if  the 
writer  feels  its  interrogative  force.  If  he  means  it 
as  an  order,  only  disguised  by  courtesy  as  a  question, 
he  will  end  it  with  a  period. 

Internal  Punctuation — Compound  Sentences 

All  compound  sentences  except  very  short  ones 
must  have  a  mark  of  punctuation  between  the  clauses. 


PUNCTUATION 

A  very  short  compound  sentence  may  be  left  un- 
divided, especially  if  the  two  verbs  are  simultaneous 
in  time,  or  describe  what  is  essentially  a  single  act: 
if  they  form  what  is  sometimes  called  a  compound 
verb. 

I  ran  and  jumped. 

She  started  and  screamed. 

In  all  other  classes  of  compound  sentences  the 
clauses  are  separated,  by  the  comma,  by  the  semi- 
colon, or  by  the  colon.  Rules  may  be  given  for  the 
choice  which  will  cover  most  cases,  but  there  remain 
others  in  which  it  is  partly  a  matter  of  meaning  and 
partly  a  matter  of  taste,  for  even  among  careful 
writers  the  usage  is  not  uniform. 

Short  simple  clauses,  even  in  very  short  sentences 
in  which  the  two  verbs  have  two  different  subjects, 
should  be  separated  by  at  least  a  comma. 

I  saw  him  run,  and  Jim  started  after  him. 

The  bark  of  apple-trees  should  be  scraped  in 
the  spring,  and  the  trees  sprayed  at  the  right 
time  for  the  codiin-moth. 

The  semicolon  marks  a  longer  pause.  It  is  used 
when  the  conjunction  is  omitted  between  the  clauses, 
making  them  more  like  separate  sentences,  and  when 
there  are  minor  pauses  within  them  indicated  by 
commas. 

Only  one  cane  should  be  allowed  to  grow ;  this 
should  be  kept  tied  to  the  stake,  all  laterals 

being  rubbed  oflf  as  soon  as  started. 

7 


A  GUIDE  TO  GOOD  ENGLISH 

You  will  need  for  cutting  off  the  large  branches 
a  large  saw  with  rather  large  teeth,  the  teeth 
pointing  forward  a  little,  like  the  splitting  saw, 
and  set  rather  wide;  and  for  small  branches  a 
smaller  saw  with  fine  teeth. 

The  colon  may  be  used  between  the  clauses  of  a 
compound  sentence  when  either  or  both  clauses  are 
subdivided  by  semicolons,  or  when  an  expression 
like  "that  is"  or  "namely"  might  be  used  to  join 
them. 

Mendoza  thus  achieved  the  impossible:  he 
surrounded  his  enemy's  entire  position  with  his 
tiny  force. 

Simple  Sentences 

In  a  simple  sentence,  a  long,  complex  subject  may 
be  set  off  by  a  comma  from  the  verb. 

The  house  that  stands  at  the  foot  of  the  street 
facing  south  across  the  downs  to  the  distant  sea, 
is  the  hero's  birthplace. 

Complex  Sentences 

A  very  short  complex  sentence  may  be  left  un- 
divided, especially  when  the  order  is  normal  (the 
main  clause  preceding  the  subordinate  one). 

He  left  as  soon  as  he  had  finished  his  work. 

In  complex  sentences,  clauses  or  sentence  elements 

out  of  the  normal  order  are  separated  by  commas 

from  the  main  clause  unless  they  are  very  short. 

8 


PUNCTUATION 

If  you  will  go  by  way  of  Keene,  I  will  go  with 
you. 

If  you  go  I  shall  go. 

By  cross-questioning  the  janitor  of  the  apart- 
ment house  in  which  she  lived,  he  learned  the 
facts. 

Restrictive  and  Non-Restrictive  Clauses 

In  complex  sentences  a  fundamental  principle  of 
punctuation  rests  on  the  distinction  between  the  re- 
strictive and  the  non-restrictive  or  modifying  clause. 
The  restrictive  clause  is  essential  to  the  meaning  of 
the  noun  to  which  it  belongs,  and  cannot  be  sepa- 
rated from  it.  The  modifying  clause  adds  an  idea 
which  limits  but  is  not  essential  to  the  idea  it  modifies. 

Restrictive:   The  book  which  we  are  studying  now 

is  much  more  interesting  than  the 

old  one. 
Modifying:  Jim  Smith,  who  had  been  fast  asleep 

all  the  time,  suddenly  began    to 

applaud. 

The  restrictive  and  the  modifying  clause  may 
answer  in  the  same  words  two  entirely  different 
questions. 

1.  Restrictive:  Q.  Who  killed  the  deer? 

A.  The  man  who   had   the   rifle 
(killed  the  deer). 

2.  Modifying:  Q.  What  did  the  man  do? 

A.  The  man  (who  had  the  rifle) 
killed  the  deer, 
9 


A  GUIDE  TO  GOOD  ENGLISH 

Note  that  in  1  the  predicate  may  be  left  out,  but 
the  clause  must  be  retained,  whereas  in  2  the  predi- 
cate is  essential  and  the  clause  may  be  omitted.  In 
speech  the  restrictive  clause  is  made  one  with  the 
noun  as  if  they  formed  a  compound  noun,"the-man- 
who-had-the-rifle. ' ' 

A  subordinate  clause  which  is  restrictive  in  mean- 
ing is  never  set  off  by  commas. 

Wrong:  Athletes,  who  are  of  low  mental  power, 
are  useful  only  in  subordinate  posi- 
tions. 

Right:  Athletes  who  are  of  low  mental  power 
are  useful  only  in  subordinate  posi- 
tions. 

Wrong:  Students,  who  do  not  attain  high  rank, 
are  seldom  successful  in  business. 

Clauses,  phrases,  and  modifiers  which  are  not  re- 
strictive are  set  off  by  commas  as  elements  which 
might  conceivably  be  omitted  from  the  sentence. 

Restrictive.     The  large  granite  building  south  of 

the  City  Hall  is  the  Post  Office. 

Explanatory.  The  large  granite  building,  south 

of  the  City  Hall,  is  the  Post 

Office. 

A  restrictive  adjective  is  placed  next  the  noun 
without  the  comma. 

I  followed  for  miles  over  a  long,  narrow,  wind- 
ing, sandy  road. 

iO 


PUNCTUATION 

Note  that  this  does  not  mean  a  road  which  is 
sandy,  long,  and  narrow ;  but  a  sandy  road  which  is 
long,  narrow,  and  winding.  If  the  order  of  the 
adjectives  can  be  changed  without  alteration  of 
meaning,  there  should  be  a  comma  between  the  last 
adjective  and  the  noun. 

Words  in  Series 

Words  in  series  not  separated  by  the  comma, 
whether  or  not  they  are  joined  by  and,  are  to  be 
taken  as  more  closely  related  than  those  which  are  so 
separated.  If  the  name  of  a  firm  is  written  ''Smith, 
Jones,  Robinson  &  Company,"  it  has  ostensibly 
three  members:  1,  Smith;  2,  Jones;  3,  Robinson 
&  Company.  Unless  Robinson  and  the  Company 
taken  together  are  no  more  than  either  of  the  others, 
the  name  should  be  written  Smith,  Jones,  Robinson, 
&  Company.^  The  use  of  the  comma  before  and  in 
such  a  series  is  determined  by  the  meaning.  "Wet 
and  cold,  tired  and  hungry,  sad  and  discouraged," 
suggests  kinship  between  external  sensations,  internal 
ones,  and  emotions.  "Wet,  cold,  tired,  hungry,  sad, 
and  discouraged,"  suggests  no  more  than  if  the  ad- 
jectives were  arranged  in  any  other  order,  as:  "wet, 
tired,  hungry,  sad,  cold,  and  discouraged." 

If  the  members  of  the  series  contain  elements 
separated  by  commas,  the  members  are  separated  by 
semicolons. 

When  he  saw,  he  laughed;  when  he  heard,  he 
wept;  and  when  he  felt,  he  perished. 

*In  this  case  as  in  some  others,  a  general  principle  ia  given, 
though  good  usage  does  not  demand  its  rigorous  application. 

11 


A  GUIDE  TO  GOOD  ENGLISH 


Interpolated  and  Parenthetical  Expressions 

Any  expression  which  may  be  set  aside  without 
destroying  the  integrity  of  the  sentence  is  paren- 
thetical in  nature,  and  is  set  off  by  commas. 

No,  I  never  saw  the  man  before. 

Come,  Martha,  it  is  time  for  us  to  go. 

I  thank  you,  sir. 

This,  as  I  understand  the  matter,  is  the  whole 
story. 

He,  I  think,  will  run  at  the  first  fire. 

"I  saw,"  said  he,  ''the  whole  action  from  be- 
ginning to  end." 

Matter  still  more  obviously  foreign  to  the  sentence, 
interpolated  as  an  afterthought  after  the  sentence  is 
begun,  is  inserted  between  dashes  or  parentheses,  or, 
at  the  end  of  the  sentence,  after  a  comma  and  a  dash. 

The  man  actually — this  is  in  the  strictest  con- 
fidence— filled  his  pocket  with  my  cigars  when  he 
thought  I  was  not  looking. 

We  shall  start  (unless,  of  course,  it  should 
rain)  at  eleven  o'clock  precisely. 

He  escorted  us  two  miles  down  the  road, — 
which  was  no  more  than  I  should  have  expected 
of  him. 

Parentheses  may  be  used  for  an  expression  which 
might  be  set  off  with  commas  when  commas  have 
already  been  used  in  the  sentence  for  other  purposes. 

12 


PUNCTUATION 

Omitted  Words — Quotations 

Words  omitted  leave  a  gap  or  pause  which  should 
be  niarked  by  a  comma. 

Fee,  ten  dollars. 

On  the  right  you  see  the  river;  on  the  left,  the 
forest. 

Sentences  or  expressions  quoted  directly  are  usually 
objects  of  verbs  of  saying  in  the  sentences  in  which 
they  stand,  and  are  so  punctuated. 


« 


He  Cometh  not,"  she  said. 


Note  that  although  the  words  within  the  quotation 
marks  would  form  a  complete  sentence  if  they  stood 
by  themselves,  in  the  sentence  as  it  stands  they  are 
set  off  by  a  comma  as  the  object  of  the  verb. 

"They  will  never  come,"  she  declared,  "un- 
less I  ask  them." 

Here  the  end  of  the  quotation  is  also  the  end  of  the 
sentence. 

"He  is  not  a  coward.  I  have  seen  him  do 
brave  things,"  I  asserted. 

"Well,"  Corey  assented,  "it  might  do.  I 
suppose  what  you  wish  is  to  give  them  pleasure." 

"What  a  shame!"  exclaimed  Helen. 

"What  is  it  then,  that  you  wish?"  asked  the 

old  man. 

13 


A  GUIDE  TO  GOOD  ENGLISH 

A  quotation  which  is  long  or  formally  introduced, 
or  any  passage  which  is  appropriately  introduced  by 
such  expressions  as  namely,  as  follows,  the  following, 
to  wit,  viz.,  is  preceded  by  a  colon. 

He  yielded  the  floor  to  his  opponent,   who 
spoke  as  follows: 

Then  Bildad  the  Shuhite  spake  and  said: 
The  list  contained  seven  items,  namely: 

Quotes 

Quotation  marks  are  placed  at  the  beginning  and 
the  end  of  any  direct  quotation  of  a  paragraph  or  less. 

If  a  quotation  contains  more  than  one  paragraph 
or  indented  line  (except  in  the  case  of  quotations 
from  the  drama  or  stanzas  of  poetry)  quotation 
marks  are  placed  at  the  beginning  of  each  indented 
line,  and  at  the  end  of  the  quotation. 

Letters  quoted  including  the  date  line,  etc.,  may  ap- 
pear without  quotation  marks;  they  should  be  set  off 
from  the  context  by  a  blank  line  at  beginning  and  end. 

A  quotation  within  a  quotation  takes  single  quo- 
tation marks.  A  quotation  within  this  receives  dou- 
ble quotation  marks  again. 

In  quoting  poetry,  place  quotation  marks  at  the 
beginning  of  each  stanza  and  at  the  end  of  the  last. 
In  quoting  plays,  put  quotation  marks  only  at  the 
beginning  and  the  end  of  the  selection. 

Italic  or  Quotes 

Words  which  are  to  be  printed  in  Italic  type  are  in- 
dicated in  manuscript  by  a  single  line  of  underscoring. 

14 


PUNCTUATION 

Italic  and  quotation  marks  are  used  to  mark 
words  and  phrases  which  are  to  be  distinguished 
from  the  context,  as  titles  of  books,  poems,  plays, 
articles,  pieces  of  music,  and  the  like,  names  of  ships, 
and  phrases  or  words  in  foreign  languages.  The 
distinction  between  Italics  and  quotation  marks  is  not 
uniform  in  the  practice  of  good  writers  and  printers, 
but  the  following  rules  afford  a  safe  guide : 

Put  in  quotation  marks  (not  in  Italic)  titles  of 
articles,  chapters  in  books,  operas,  plays,  poems, 
songs,  paintings,  pieces  of  sculpture.  Characters  in 
plays  and  other  literature  are  alluded  to  as  if  they 
were  real  persons, — their  names  not  quoted.  Pen 
names  of  authors  need  not  be  quoted. 

Put  in  Italics  (without  quotation  marks)  the  titles 
of  books,  newspapers,  magazines,  and  names  of  ships. 
Words  and  phrases  from  foreign  languages,  when  not 
in  conversation  or  other  quoted  matter,  are  in  Italics. 
There  is,  however,  a  list  of  common  foreign  words 
to  which  we  have  become  so  accustomed  that  we  do 
not  distinguish  them  from  English  words.  Among 
those  which  may  appear  without  Italics  are  the  fol- 
lowing: ad  valorem,  a  la  carte,  a  priori,  apropos, 
attach^,  belles-lettres,  bona  fide,  boutonniere,  charge 
d'affaires,  chateau,  coup  d'etat,  debris,  decollete, 
41ite,  en  route,  entree,  entrepot,  expos6,  fagade,  fac- 
simile, fete,  fianc^,  fiancee,  mel^e,  naivete,  neglige, 
papier  mach^,  prot^g^,  prot^g^e,  regime,  r^sum^,  role, 
sang-froid,  sotto  voce,  status  quo,  table  d'hote,  terra 
firma,  tete-a-tete,  verbatim,  via,  vice  versa,  etc. 


IV 

CAPITALIZATION 

Cap.        No  cap.        1.  c. 

The  first  word  of  a  sentence  begins  with  a  capital 
letter. 

The  first  word  of  a  fine  of  poetry  begins  with  a 
capital  letter. 

The  first  word  of  a  direct  quotation  begins  with  a 
capital  if  it  is  so  in  the  original. 

He  opened  the  book  and  read,  "The  Lord  is 
my  shepherd." 

The  sentence  shall  be  amended  to  read, 
" — whenever  and  wherever  the  president  shall 
determine." 

All  proper  names  begin  with  capitals.  If  the 
proper  name  consists  of  several  words,  all  are 
capitalized  except  articles,  prepositions,  and  con- 
junctions. 

San  Diego,  Burton  on  Trent,  the  Grand  Army 
of  the  Republic. 

Titles  of  books,  newspapers,  plays,  and  the  like, 
are  written  with  capitals  beginning  the  important 
words,  most  commonly  nouns,  principal  verbs,  ad- 

16 


CAPITALIZATION 

jectives,  and  adverbs.     The  word  the  is  capitalized 
as  part  of  the  title  if  the  title  is  quoted  exactly. 

Professor  Gummere  says  in  his  Beginnings  of 
Poetry  .  .  . 

See  The  Beginnings  of  Poetry,  F.  B.  Gummere, 
etc. 

A  personal  title  which  immediately  precedes  the 
name  of  the  holder  begins  with  a  capital. 

Cardinal  Newman,  General  Schurz,  President 
Eliot,  etc. 

Such  a  title  standing  without  the  name  of  the 
holder  has  no  capital  unless  it  means  the  holder  of 
the  title,  not  any  holder  of  the  title. 

The  president  of  a  college  is  not  necessarily 
the  president  of  the  board  of  trustees. 

The  President  called  the  Cabinet  together,  and 
explained  to  them  the  situation  of  the  Army  of 
the  Potomac. 

All  words  standing  as  the  equivalent  of  the  name  of 
the  Deity,  usually  including  personal  pronouns,  may 
be  capitalized. 

"My  Life,  my  Portion,  Thou, 
Thou  all-sufficient  art; 
My  Hope,  my  heavenly  Treasure  now, 
Enter  and  keep  my  heart." 

Names  of  the  points  of  the  compass  are  not  capi- 
talized unless  they  designate  geographical  sections. 

17 


A   GUIDE  TO  GOOD  ENGLISH 

The  woods  lie  west  of  the  house. 
In  the  West,  there  is  supposed  to  be  more  freedom 
from  conventionahty. 

The  names  of  the  seasons  need  not  be  capitalized 
unless  they  are  personified. 

The  best  time  for  transplanting  them  is  in  the 
spring. 

"Come,  gentle  Spring!  ethereal  Mildness!  come." 

Other  abstract  nouns  are  capitalized  when  the 
qualities  they  name  are  personified. 

"Here  rests  his  head  upon  the  lap  of  earth, 
A  youth  to  Fortune  and  to  Fame  unknown. 
Fair  Science  frowned  not  on  his  humble  birth, 
And  Melancholy  marked  him  for  her  own." 

The  pronoun  /  and  the  interjection  0  are  cap- 
italized. 

Capitalize  Christmas  Day,  New-Year's  Day,  Lin- 
coln''s  Birthday,  Washington's  Birthday,  Good  Friday, 
Decoration  Day  or  Memorial  Day,  Fourth  of  July, 
Labor  Day,  Election  Day,  Thanksgiving  Day,  etc.; 
a  noted  day,  as  Black  Friday,  etc. ;  but  blue  Monday. 

Capitalize  city  only  when  part  of  the  corporate 
name,  New  York  City,  Washington  City. 

Capitalize  Northerner,  Southerner,  Northern  gentle- 
man, Southern  blood,  etc. 

Capitalize  names  of  important  events  and  periods; 
as,  the  Creation,  the  Fall,  the  Flood,  the  Reformation, 

IS 


CAPITALIZATION 

the  Revolution  (French  or  American),  Civil  War 
(American),  the  Middle  Ages,  the  Union,  Reconstruc- 
tion. 

Capitalize  the  names  of  political  parties;  as, 
Republican  Party,  Democratic  Party,  Progressive 
Party,  etc. 

When  title,  with  or  without  Christian  name,  pre- 
cedes "de,"  use  lower-case  ''d";  this  rule  applies 
also  to  ''la,"  *'di,"  "von,"  "van,"  etc.:  Marquis  de 
Lafayette,  Di  Cesnola,  Prince  von  Moltke,  Von  Hum- 
boldt, Dr.  la  Mond,  De  Chaulnes,  Mr.  van  Renssalaer. 
''  When  a  character  in  a  story  is  known  by  a  title, 
such  as  Colonel,  Judge,  Captain,  Doctor,  Professor, 
etc.,  use  capital. 

Capitalize  Government  when  referring  to  the  insti- 
tution; as,  Government  of  the  United  States,  the 
Government,  at  the  seat  of  Government,  the  Confederate 
States  Government,  the  State  Government.  Do  not 
capitalize  it  where  it  is  used  as  an  adjective;  as, 
government  bonds,  government  control. 

Capitalize  the  names  of  all  branches  of  the  Govern- 
ment :  the  Executive,  the  Cabinet,  Congress,  Senate,  the 
Upper  House,  the  Capitol,  War  Department,  Secretary 
(of  a  Cabinet  office),  the  Treasury. 

Capitalize  Supreme  Court  when  it  means  the 
Federal  court,  the  Constitution,  the  Confederacy, 
Federal  Government,  National  Government. 

Capitalize  State  only  when  referring  to  one  of  the 
United  States. 

Capitalize    Army   when   referring    to    the    entire 

Army  of  the  United  States,  the  Regular  Army,  the 

Volunteer  Army;  but  not  when  used  as  an  adjective, 

19 


A  GUIDE  TO  GOOD  ENGLISH 

as  army  hoard,  army  oficer,  etc.,  but  use  Regular  Army 
officer.  Names  of  portions  of  the  Army  are  not 
capitalized;  as,  the  army  in  the  field,  the  Philippine 
army,  etc.  Branches  of  the  service  are  named  with- 
out capitals;  as,  the  infantry,  the  cavalry,  etc.;  so  also 
organizations  bearing  names  of  persons:  Robinson's 
brigade,  Wheat's  regiment.  Capitalize  the  names  of 
foreign  military  organizations. 

Capitalize  Navy  when  referring  to  the  whole  Navy; 
as,  the  Navy,  an  offix^er  of  the  Navy.  A  part  of  the 
Navy  may  be  named  without  capitals;  as,  the  navy  in 
the  Philippines.  Used  as  an  adjective  the  term  has 
no  capital;  as,  a  navy  officer,  navy  cloth,  navy  blue. 
Capitalize  its  organizations;  as.  Engineer  Corps,  etc. 

Capitalize  Monsieur,  Madame,  Signor,  etc. 

Capitalize  church  only  when  used  as  a  part  of  a 
proper  name  or  when  referred  to  as  a  denomination 
or  as  an  institution;  as,  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
St.  Mark's  Church,  Church  and  State,  etc.  It  is 
without  the  capital  always  when  used  alone  or  when 
meaning  congregation  or  building;  as,  a  Methodist 
church  in  Hoboken. 

In  by-laws,  proceedings,  or  other  publications  of 
a  college,  club,  society,  company,  etc.,  capitalize 
College,  Club,  Society,  etc.,  when  referring  to  that 
particular  body. 

In  compound  words,  as  Vice-President,  etc.,  cap- 
italize the  second  half  if  such  word  would  be  capital- 
ized when  standing  alone,  but  do  it  invariably  in 
chapter-heads,  title-pages,  etc. 


SPELLING 

Sp. 

When  your  attention  is  called  to  a  misspelled 
word  in  your  manuscript,  look  it  up  in  the  dictionary 
unless  you  are  absolutely  certain  that  the  error  is  one 
of  carelessness  rather  than  ignorance.  Do  not  as- 
sume that  if  a  word  is  not  spelled  as  you  first 
thought,  there  can  be  but  one  other  way.     Look  it  up. 

Habitual  misspelling  may  be  overcome  by  bending 
all  the  faculties  to  the  task. 

1.  Keep  a  list  of  the  words  you  habitually  mis- 
spell, and  resolutely  memorize  the  spelling  of  them. 
When  you  have  accumulated  a  number  of  them 
classify  them  under  the  rules  given  below ;  you  may 
find  that  the  learning  and  practice  of  one  or  two  rules 
will  correct  most  of  your  errors. 

2.  Train  the  eye  by  habitual  reading  in  order  to 
stock  the  mind  with  a  series  of  trustworthy  visual 
images  of  words. 

3.  Train  the  ear  by  the  practice  of  careiul  pro- 
nunciation. 

4.  Study  so  far  as  possible  the  history  of  difficult 
words,  and  take  advantage  of  the  help  offered  by 
resemblances  to  Latin  or  other  origins,  or  to  variant 
forms  from  the  same  origin.     If  you  think  of  the 

21 


A   GUIDE  TO   GOOD   ENGLISH 

Latin  words  that  give  us  sacrilege  and  privilege  you 
can  remember  how  to  spell  them.  If  you  cannot 
remember  what  the  vowels  are  in  the  unaccented 
syllable  of  ridicule,  think  of  ridiculous. 

5.  Use  the  dictionary  freely,  even  vrhen  you  are 
almost  sure  that  you  know.  Look  a  word  up  in 
preference  to  asking  some  one  about  it ;  the  diction- 
ary is  more  apt  to  be  right,  and  makes  a  more  lasting 
impression. 

Rules  for  Spelling 

Although  most  rules  for  English  spelling  have  many 
exceptions,  there  are  some  which  cover  large  enough 
classes  of  words  to  be  very  useful.  One  of  the  most 
troublesome  of  these  classes  is  that  of  words  in 
ei  and  ie. 

Most  words  in  the  ei-ie  class  are  spelled  ie. 

In  words  in  which  the  diphthong  is  preceded  by 
soft  c  or  I  the  order  of  consonant  and  vowel  is  the 
same  as  in  the  word  lice;  that  is,  e  follows  soft  c, 
and  i  follows  Z. 

Exception:  financier. 

In  words  in  which  the  diphthong  has  a  sound  other 
than  that  of  long  e  it  is  most  commonly  spelled  ei. 

Exceptions:  inveigle  (when  pronounced  e),  seize, 
weird,  ceiling,  leisure  (when  pro- 
nounced c). 
Examples:    a:   eight,  weight,  heinous,  neighbor, 
sleigh,    reign,    inveigle    (when 
pronounced  «). 
d :   heir 


'22 


SPELLING 

i:    sieve,  mischief,  counterfeit,  sur- 
feit 

T:    heigiit,  sleight 

e:   leisure  (when  pronounced  e), 
heifer,  foreign. 

An  unstressed  vowel  may  sometimes  be  determined 
by  another  form  of  the  same  word  in  which  the  vowel 
is  stressed. 

Hygiene,  hygienic;   ridicule,  ridiculous;   paren- 
thesis, parenthetic;   infinite,  finite. 

Words  ending  in  quy  or  in  y  preceded  by  a  conso- 
nant form  the  plural  by  changing  y  to  i  and  adding  es. 

Sohloquy,  soliloquies;    lily,  lilies. 

Most  words  ending  in  o  preceded  by  a  consonant 
have  plurals  in  oes. 

Examples:    tomatoes,  negroes,  cargoes,  etc. 
Exceptions:  halos,     lassos,     mementos,     pianos, 
quartos,  solos,  sopranos,  frescos,  etc. 

A  single  silent  e  at  the  end  of  a  word  is  generally 
dropped  before  a  suffix  beginning  with  a  vowel. 

Ravage,  ravaging;    college,  collegiate;    erase, 
erasure;    etc. 

A  final  silent  e  which  indicates  the  soft  pronuncia- 
tion of  c  or  ^  is  retained  before  a  suffix  beginning  with 

a  vowel. 

23 


A  GUIDE  TO  GOOD  ENGLISH 

Peace,  peaceable;  service,  serviceable;  out- 
rage, outrageous;  courage,  courageous.  (Note 
that  the  final  e  in  agree  is  not  silent;  hence, 
'Ogreeahle.) 

A  final  silent  e  in  monosyllables  and  final  accented 
syllables  usually  indicates  the  long  pronunciation  of 
the  preceding  vowel.  It  is  retained  before  suffixes 
beginning  with  a  consonant. 

Spite,  spiteful  (but  spiting,  where  suflix  begins 
with  a  vowel). 

Short  vowels  are  sometimes  found  before  single 
consonants  (as  in  triple),  but  long  vowels  do  not 
occur  before  double  consonants.  There  is  such  a 
word  as  riffle,  but  it  is  not  the  same  word  as  rifle. 
In  such  words  the  double  consonant  is  retained  before 
suffixes,  but  no  consonant  is  tripled. 

In  monosyllables  and  final  stressed  syllables  end- 
ing in  a  consonant  preceded  by  a  single  vowel,  the 
final  consonant  is  doubled  before  a  suffix  beginning 
with  a  vowel. 

Flit,  flitting;    permit,  permitting;    etc. 

Suffixes  like  -ness  and  -ly  are  added  without  change 
even  where  they  double  the  consonant,  except,  of 
course,  where  the  consonant  is  already  double. 

Mean,  meanness;    thankful,  thankfully;   full, 

fully. 

24 


SPELLING 

The  prefixes  mis-,  dis-,  and  the  like,  do  not  change 
the  spelHng  of  words  to  which  they  are  added. 

Dissimilar,  mtsspell,  mistake. 

Final  y  after  a  consonant  becomes  i  before  a 
suffix. 

Ready,  readiness;   bounty,  bountiful;   etc. 


LIST  OF  WORDS  OFTEN  MISSPELLED 


abbreviate 

existence 

meant 

accident 

explanation 

necessary 

accidentally 

fascinate 

noticeable 

across 

formally 

occasion 

agreeable 

formerly 

occur 

all  right 

forty- 

occurred 

almost 

gauge 

occurrence 

already 

guard 

parallel 

amateur 

height 

paraphernalia 

Apollo 

incident 

parliament 

argmnent 

independent 

passed 

athletic 

indispensable 

past 

beginning 

its 

phenomenon 

business 

laboratory 

Philip 

concede 

later 

possess 

deseriptive 

latter 

practice 

dining 

lead 

practise 

disappear 

led 

precede 

dissatisfied 

hvelihood 

preparation 

dissipated 

loose 

principal 

e'er 

lose 

principle 

eighth 

loyalty 

privilege 

embarra,s.s 

Macaulay 

proceed 

ere 

manceuver 

professor 

exceed 

marriage 
25 

prophecy 

A   GUIDE  TO   GOOD   ENGLISH 


LIST  OF  WORDS  OFTEN  UlSSFELLED— Continued 


prophesy 

satire 

squirrel 

quiet 

satyr 

studying 

quite 

seize 

succeed 

rabbit 

sentence 

suit 

recommend 

separate 

suite 

remember 

shepherd 

therefore 

rhyme 

siege 

tiU 

rhythm 

skilful 

tragedy 

rhythmic 

skilfully 

until 

ridicule 

sohloquies 

villain 

sacrilege 

Sophomore 

wierd 

sacrilegious 

speech 

writing 

VI 
DIVISION   OF   WORDS— SYLLABICATION 

tr. 

Do  not  divide  a  word  at  the  end  of  a  line  un- 
less you  are  sure  of  the  syllabication.  In  doubtful 
cases,  carry  over  the  whole  word,  or  consult  a 
dictionary. 

Never  divide  a  word  except  between  syllables. 

Never  divide  a  monosyllable,  or  a  word  in  which 
two  syllables  are  pronounced  almost  as  one,  like 
flower  or  heaven. 

Never  divide  a  word  into  unpronounceable  groups 
of  letters. 

Divide  between  the  prefix  and  the  word  (as  mis' 
take),  between  the  suffix  and  the  word  (as  soul-less), 
and  usually  between  double  letters. 

Never  divide  a  word  so  as  to  leave  a  single  letter 
standing  as  a  syllable  at  the  beginning  or  the  end 
of  a  line. 

Printers'  Rules  for  Division  of  Words 

Printers,  who  must  divide  words  to  make  lines  of 
equal  length,  use  such  rules  as  the  following: 

Not  more  than  three  consecutive  divisions  shall 
be  allowed. 

27 


A   GUIDE  TO  GOOD   ENGLISH 

The  turning  over  of  two  letters  should  be  avoided 
if  possible. 

Avoid  the  division  of  proper  names  where  good 
spacing  is  possible  without  it. 

The  addition  of  s  to  form  the  plural  of  a  word — 
as,  cases,  horses,  etc. — does  not  form  another  syllable, 
and  such  word  must  not  be  divided. 

Do  not  divide  compound  words,  except  at  the 
compounding  hyphen,  in  any  but  extreme  cases. 

Never  divide  a  short  word  at  the  end  of  a  paragraph. 

Compound  Wards — Use  of  the  Hyphen 

For  the  compounding  of  words  and  use  of  the 
hyphen  there  are  no  complete  rules  which  cover 
all  cases.  One  can  hardly  do  more  than  depend 
on  the  memory  for  the  form  of  a  number  of  words  of 
frequent  occurrence,  and  look  up  all  others  in  a 
trustworthy  dictionary  or  a  list  of  such  words.  Good 
usage  is  divided  in  many  cases,  but  it  is  safe  to  follow 
a  good  set  of  printers'  rules  like  the  following: 

Compound  adjectives  take  the  hyphen;  as,  cast- 
iron  box,  twenty-ton  gun,  two-wheeled  carriage,  two- 
thirds  vote,  third-rail  system,  three-year-old  colt,  well- 
known  fact,  and  the  like. 

Adverbs  are  not  hyphenated  with  the  adjectives 
which  they  qualify;  as,  a  divinely  inspired  book,  a 
nicely  kept  lawn. 

An  of  or  of  the  relationship  between  two  nouns 
may  be  indicated  by  a  hyphen  when  the  two 
form  a  noun-compound;  as,  novel-reader,  nature- 
study,  office-holder,  story-writing.     The  commonest  of 

28 


DIVISION   OF  WORDS— SYLLABICATION 

of  these,  however,  have  dropped  the  hyphen;  as, 
taxpayer,  bookkeeper,  landholder,  householder,  stock- 
holder. 

Any  two  or  more  words  (except  those  which  form 
a  proper  name  in  themselves)  joined  to  form  an 
adjective-compound  are  joined  by  hyphens;  as, 
special-rate  ticket,  soon-forgotten  favors,  up-country 
dialect,  up-to-date  affair,  end-of-the-century  swagger; 
but:  New  York  family.  Middle  English  spelling, 
Old  Testament  doctrine. 

By  as  the  first  member  of  a  compound  is  usually 
followed  by  the  hyphen;  as,  by-play,  by-path,  by- 
product, by-name. 

Adjectives  of  color  in  ish  are  not  hyphenated  to 
names  of  colors  (yellowish  red,  brownish  gray),  but  a 
descriptive  noun  is  usually  hyphenated  to  the  name 
of  a  color;  as,  olive-green,  slate-blue,  pearl-gray. 

The  following  are  usually  hyphenated  when  joined 
with  other  words: 

dealer 

elect 

ex 

god  (when  it  comes  second,  as  in  river-god) 

great    (in    compounds    like    great-grandfather, 
great-aunt) 

half  (when  with  nouns;  as,  half-pay,  half-year) 

life  (except  in  lifetime,  lifelike,  and  lifelong) 

maker 

master 

quarter  (when  with  nouns;  as,  quarter-interest, 

guarter-mdle) 

vice  (with  titles ;  as  vice-admiral) 

29 


A  GUIDE  TO  GOOD  ENGLISH 

Latin  prefixes  like  ante,  anti,  co,  inter,  pre,  re,  sub, 
super,  are  joined  without  the  hyphen  unless  its 
omission  would  give  the  wrong  meaning  to  the  word. 
Re-collect  means  collect  again,  whereas  recollect  means 
remember;  re-create  means  create  again,  whereas 
recreate  means  commonly  divert  or  amuse. 

Fold  is  joined  without  hyphen  to  words  of  one 
syllable;  as,  twofold,  threefold,  fourfold.  With  words 
of  two  or  more  syllables  write  as  two  words;  twenty 
fold,  seventy  fold,  hundred  fold. 

Like  in  ordinary  words  is  joined  without  the 
hyphen;  but  the  hyphen  is  used  with  words  ending 
in  II  and  in  unusual  compounds;  bell-like.  Apache- 
like, fresco-like. 

Points  of  the  compass  are  written,  northeast,  north- 
east by  east,  east-northeast,  east  by  north,  and  so  on. 

Words  with  -room  are  usually  hyphenated  except 
bedroom,  ballroom,  anteroom. 

Self  is  hyphenated  except  in  selfsame. 

Way  is  joined  without  the  h3^phen;  as,  doorway, 
hallway,  waybill. 


VII 
ABBREVIATIONS 

Military  and  civic  titles  may  be  abbreviated 
when  a  Christian  name  or  initials  are  given;  as, 
Dr.  John  Smith,  Gen.  U.  S.  Grant.  Spell  them  out 
when  Christian  name  or  initials  are  omitted;  as, 
Doctor  Smith,  Colonel  Bryan. 

The  character  &  may  be  used  in  firm  names;  as, 
Brown  &  Jones. 

Abbreviate  Company  when  character  &  is  used; 
as,  A.  J.  Johnson  &  Co.  When  &  is  not  used,  spell 
out  Company ;  as,  Pawley  Publishing  Company. 

Monsieur,  etc.,  when  followed  by  a  surname  may  be 
either  spelled  out  or  abbreviated ;  when  not  followed  by 
a  surname,  spell  out.   In  writing  conversation  spell  out. 

Spell  out  names  of  States  and  Territories,  even  if 
preceded  by  the  name  of  a  city;  but  in  tabular  mat- 
ter, or  when  required  to  abbreviate,  use  the  following: 


Ala. 

Kan. 

Nev. 

S.  D. 

Ariz. 

Ky. 

N.  C. 

Tenn. 

Ark. 

La. 

N.  D. 

Tex. 

Cal. 

Md. 

N.  H. 

Va. 

Colo. 

Me. 

N.  J. 

Vt. 

Conn. 

Mass. 

N.  M. 

Wash. 

D.  C. 

Mich. 

N.  Y. 

Wis. 

Del. 

Minn. 

Okla. 

W.Va. 

Fla. 

Miss. 

Ore. 

Wyo. 

Ga. 

Mo. 

Pa. 

111. 

Mont. 

R.  I. 

I.  T. 

Neb. 

S.  C. 

3 

< 

31 

A  GUIDE  TO  GOOD  ENGLISH 

Titles  of  courtesy  and  professional  titles  preceding 
names  may  be  contracted  or  spelled  according  to  the 
following  List: 

Professor  (with  surname  only)  MUe.  (Mademoiselle) 


Prof,  (with  Christian  name 

Mgr.  (Monseigneur) 

or  initials) 

Sig.  (Signor) 

Rev. 

Signora 

Right  Rev. 

Signorina 

Very  Rev. 

Senor 

Hon. 

Seiiora 

Right  Hon. 

Senorita 

M.  (Monsieur) 

Senorito 

MM.  or  Messrs.  (Messieurs) 

Herr 

Mme.  (Madame) 

Roman  numerals  (I,  II,  III,  etc.),  when  used 
alone  or  in  text,  require  no  periods;  but  should 
have  periods  when  used  in  titles  (as,  Charles  /., 
Henry  IV.),  and  in  numbering  parts,  chapters  or 
volumes  of  books  (as,  vol.  i.,  pt.  ii.,  chap.  iv.). 

The  different  sizes  of  books  (4to,  8vo,  12mo) 
require  no  periods. 

Use  etc.,  not  &c. 

The  abbreviations  used  in  the  metric  system  of 
weights  and  measures  are  as  follows: 

cubic  centimeter,  c.c.  kilometer,  km. 

centigram,  eg.  hter,  1. 

centimeter,  cm.  meter,  m. 

gram,  gm.  millimeter,  mm. 

hectogram,  hg.  myriagram,  myg. 

hectoliter,  hi.  myrialiter,  myl. 

hectometer,  hm.  myriameter,  mym. 
kiloliter,  kl. 


VIII 
FIGURES 

In  ordinary  numerical  statements  spell  out  num- 
bers, but  in  statistical  groups  use  figures.  Three  or 
more  amounts,  when  used  in  proximity,  may  be  con- 
sidered statistical. 

In  conversational  matter  numbers  should  be 
spelled  out.  When  spelled  out,  use  form  forty-three 
hundred  rather  than  four  thousand  three  hundred;  but 
three  thousand,  etc. 

Numbers  containing  decimals  or  fractions  may  be 
put  in  figures. 

Never  begin  a  sentence  with  figures,  even  if  figures 
are  used  elsewhere  in  the  sentence. 

Time  of  day  should  be  put  in  figures  when  followed 
by  A.M.  or  P.M.,  using  a  period  between  hours  and 
minutes;  as,  10.15  a.m.  Spell  out  when  ''o'clock" 
is  used;  as,  two  o^ clock,  half-past  three  o^ clock. 

Put  a  period  between  minutes  and  seconds;  as, 
2.30  class. 

When  B.C.  and  a.d.  are  used  with  year,  write  as 
follows:   600  B.C.     a.d.  1891. 

Periods  of  time,  ages,  and  the  like  should  be  spelled 
out;   as,  twenty-four  hours,  ten  years  old,  etc. 

In  dates,  omit  "d,"  "th,"  and  "st"  when  the  year 
is  given;  as,  October  9,  1908.  Use  them  when  the 
year  is  omitted;  as,  October  20th.  Use  2d  and  3d, 
not  2nd  and  3rd. 

33 


A  GUIDE  TO  GOOD  ENGLISH 

In  designating  a  lapse  of  time  in  years,  express 
it  thus:  1913-14,  not  1913-4. 

When  numbers  are  used  frequently  and  are  com- 
plicated, they  should  be  put  in  figures. 

Insert  comma  in  four  or  more  figures,  except  in 
dates,  or  when  used  as  the  number  of  a  place  or 
thing  (1345  Fifth  Avenue;  Policy  123456). 

An  expression  like  "10  per  cent."  should  be  written 
as  here. 


IX 
GRAMMAR    AND    IDIOM 

The  sj-mbols  G  and  E  are  used  in  correcting 
manuscript  to  mark  offenses  against  the  grammar 
and  idiom  of  the  language.  Grammar  represents 
the  custom  of  our  speech  which  has  existed  so 
long  that  it  has  been  written  down,  analyzed, 
and  explained.  Idioms  are  forms  of  speech  which 
seem  to  be  exceptions  to,  or  violations  of,  the  ordinary 
rules  of  grammar,  but  which  are  none  the  less  in 
good  use,  as,  if  you  please,  you  had  better,  as  though. 
An  expression  may  be  marked  E,  "not  English,"  if 
it  is  not  according  to  English  idiom,  either  because 
the  words  are  not  EngUsh,  in  which  case  it  is  a 
barbarism;  because  the  words  are  not  used  in  an 
English  sense,  in  which  case  the  expression  is  called 
an  impropriety;  or  because  the  construction  is  not 
Enghsh,  in  which  case  the  expression  is  called  a 
solecism.  In  practice  these  distinctions  hardly  go 
beyond  the  difference  between  grammar  and  idiom, 
and  even  that  is  not  always  clear-cut. 

The  principles  involved  in  the  constructions  dis- 
cussed here,  and  definitions  of  the  terms  used,  may 
be  found  in  the  ''Outline  for  Re\'iew  of  Grammar," 

page  158- 

35 


A  GUIDE  TO  GOOD  ENGLISH 

''ShalV  and  ''Will" 

G 

The  auxiliaries  shall,  will,  should,  and  would  are 
used  to  express  two  kinds  of  future  action;  first, 
''simple  futurity,"  that  which  "is  going"  to  happen 
in  the  natural  course  of  events;  second,  ''volition," 
that  which  is  to  be  made  to  happen  through  consent, 
desire,  compulsion,  or  prophecy. 

To  express  simple  futurity  in  direct  discourse  the 
auxiliary  is  conjugated: 


I  shall 

we  shall 

you  will 

you  will 

he  will 

they  will 

To  express  volition  in  direct  discourse  the  forms 
are: 

I  will  we  will 

you  shall  you  shall 

he  shall  they  shall 

In  a  question,  use  the  form  Expected  in  the  answer. 
If  the  question  is  as  to  what  is  going  to  happen 
(simple  futurity)  use  the  form  which  the  person  who 
replies  would  use  to  indicate  simple  futurity.  If  you 
expect  a  promise,  or  consider  that  the  person  who 
answers  has  any  control  over  the  course  of  the  event, 
use  the  form  he  would  use  to  express  volition. 

The  question  "Will  I?"  ("Will  I  scrub  the  kitchen 
floor  now,  ma'am?")  is  always  a  conundrum,  for 
when  you  ask  it,  you  ask  some  one  else  about  your 

36 


GRAMMAR  AND  IDIOM 

intentions,  a  matter  on  which  you  yourself  hold  the 
only  certain  knowledge.  It  is  correctly  used  only 
as  an  echo,  usually  ironical,  of  another  speaker's 
words,  as: 

You  will  now,  if  you  please,  do  as  I  told  you 
to  in  the  first  place 
Will  I,  indeed! 

If  the  question  is  not  ironical,  the  auxiliary  in  the 
answer  is  likely  to  be  shall. 

You  will  find  spherical  trigonometry  a  very 
difl&cult  study. 
Shall  I? 

If  the  second  speaker  expected  any  answer,  it 
would  be,  ''You  will,"  and  he  would  use  will  in  his 
question.  If  he  uses  shall,  he  expects  no  answer; 
his  question  is  perfunctory,  and  means  no  more  than 
"Indeed?" 

A  direct  command  from  one  who  might  rightly 
use  terms  of  volition  (compulsion)  is  often  put  in 
terms  of  mere  futurity  as  a  matter  of  courtesy. 

You  will  proceed  at  once  with  your  entire  com- 
mand to  the  support  of  General  McVickar. 

The  forms  indicating  volition  are  used  in  in- 
spired and  prophetic  language,  perhaps  because  the 
speaker  as  a  prophet  is  supposed  to  feel  some  sort  of 
control  over  future  events,  or  because  he  is  indicating 

37 


A   GUIDE   TO   GOOD   ENGLISH 

some  degree  of  compulsion  on  the  part  of  some  power 
which  has  such  control. 

"And  the  desert  shall  blossom  as  the  rose." 
"And  no  one  shall  work  for  money,  and  no  one 
shall  work  for  fame." 

"And  there  shall  be  no  more  death." 

In  indirect  discourse '  use  should  where  the  direct 
form  has  shall,  and  would  where  the  direct  form  has 
will. 

Direct:  I  shall  go,  and  Tom  will  go,  and  as  for 
Ned,  he  shall  go  or  I  will  know  the 
reason  why.     Shall  you  go? 

Indirect:  Jack  said  he  should  go,  and  Tom  would, 
and  that  Ned  should  or  he  would 
know  the  reason  why,  and  he  asked 
whether  I  should  go. 


Common  Grammatical  Errors 

It  is  sometimes  incorrectly  used  without  an  ante- 
cedent. 

Incorrect:  It  says  in  the  book  that  action  and  re- 
^^^^'^  action  are  equal  in  opposite  direc- 

^^T  tions. 

Correct:     The  book  says  that,  etc. 

*  Direct  discourse  is  the  exact  quotation  of  the  words  of  the  speaker; 
as,  "/  suppose  you  vrish  to  see  me  fall  in."  Indirect  discourse  is  the 
quotation  of  the  speaker  in  substance  but  not  in  form;  as,  "Mr.  Smith 
said  he  supposed  I  unshed  to  see  him  fall  into  the  water." 

38 


GRAMMAR  AND   IDIOM 

Certain  expressions  of  this  type  are  in  good  use; 
for  example,  idiomatic  indefinite  expressions  in  re- 
gard to  the  weather:  '^It  is  not  going  to  rain"; 
and  others,  as,  ^'It  is  not  worth  while  to  discuss  the 
matter  now."  Such  a  sentence  as  the  last  may  be 
made  more  periodic  and  formal  by  reversing  the  order: 
*'To  discuss  the  matter  now  is  not  worth  while." 
G.  Myself,  yourself,  himself,  herself  are  intensive  and 

c.  w.  reflexive  pronouns  correctly  used  for  emphasis  or  to 
denote  reflexive  action.  They  are  not  to  be  used  as 
personal  pronouns. 

Incorrect:  Mrs.  Smith  and  myself  will  be  glad  to 
eome. 

We  expect  yourself  and  friends. 
Correct:    Mrs.  Smith  and  I  will  be  glad  to  come. 

We  expect  you  and  your  friends. 

G.  This  or  that  limiting  kind  is  often  attracted  into 

the  plural  by  the  following  noun. 

Wrong:  These  kind  of  beans  are  best. 
Right:     This  kind  of  bean  is  best. 

Beans  of  this  kind  are  best. 

G-  One  of  a  pair  of  correlatives  may  be  weak  or 

^'     ungrammatical  if  used  without  the  other. 

Weak:  He  was  driving  one  of  those  balky  horses 

{which,  etc.) 
She  cried  because  her  tooth  was  aching 

so  {that,  etc.) 

He  always  sells  sxLch  good  apples  {that, 

etc.) 

39 


A  GUIDE  TO   GOOD  ENGLISH 

Such  sentences  may  be  corrected  by  supplying  the 
second  correlative,  as  indicated  in  the  parentheses 
above,  or  changing  the  first  to  the  indefinite  article. 
They  are  poorly  expressed  when  the  second  member 
cannot  be  easily  understood.  A  such  at  the  beginning 
of  a  sentence  clearly  referring  to  something  in  the 
preceding  sentence  does  not  necessarily  need  the  as. 
Whether  need  not  be  followed  by  or  if  the  or  means 
simply  or  not. 

An  adjective  modifier  should  not  be  made  to  do 
duty  as  an  adverb. 

Wro7ig:  He  could  not  see,  due  to  the  darkness. 
Right:     He  could  not  see  because  of  the  darkness. 
The  darkness  was  due  to  the  cloud  over 
the  moon. 

The  noun  modifying  a  gerund  should  be  in  the 
possessive  case.  In  a  sentence  like,  ''Our  tardiness 
was  due  to  my  being  slow,"  the  gerund  phrase  my 
being  slow  is  the  object  of  the  preposition  to,  and  my 
limits  being,  whereas  in  the  sentence,  "Our  tardiness 
was  due  to  me,"  me  is  the  object  of  to.  Do  not 
confuse  the  two  constructions. 

The  practice  of  "splitting"  infinitives,  putting  a 
modifier  between  the  infinitive  and  its  sign,  to,  is  not 
yet  in  good  use. 

The  object  of  a  verb  should  be  in  the  objective 
case. 

Whom  did  you  see?     (Whom  is  object  of  see.) 

Who  did  you  think  went?     (Who  is  subject  of 

went:   "Who  went,  think  you?") 

40 


GRAMMAR  AND  IDIOM 

G.  The  object  of  a  preposition  should  be  in  the 

objective  case. 

He  goes  before  me. 

G.  Distinguish  between  the  object  of  a  preposition 

^^'*    and  the  subject  of  an  implied  verb  introduced  by  a 
conjunction. 

He  shook  hands  with  every  one  but  me.  {Me  is 
object  of  hut.) 

Every  one  had  gone  but  I.  ("But  I  had  not 
gone.") 

You  are  taller  than  I  (am). 

You  are  as  good  as  she  (is). 


masen* 
tence 


X 

SENTENCES 

S. 

The  mark  S  for  "faulty  sentence"  is  most  com- 
monly used  to  indicate  faults  in  sentence  structure 
which  are  supposed  to  be  obvious  to  the  writer  when 
his  attention  is  called  to  them.  More  specifically, 
they  may  be  indicated  by  such  symbols  as  Cst.,  G., 
U.,  L.,  and  others  discussed  below. 
£*'■  A  sentence  is  sometimes  written  as  if  it  were  a 
"Com-  clause  of  the  preceding  sentence,  separated  from  it 
only  by  a  comma. 

Wrong:  The  title  of  the  book  indicates  its  char- 
acter, practical  information  for  the 
gardener  may  be  found  in  it. 

Right:  The  title  of  the  book  indicates  its  char- 
acter. Practical  information  for  the 
gardener  may  be  found  in  it. 

A  clause  is  often  left  standing  as  a  sentence. 

Wrong:  Nights  in  the  mountains  are  cold  and 
dry.     Especially  in  high  altitudes. 

Grammatical  Faults 

g'*-        Do  not  leave  words  or  phrases  hanging  without 
^       any  discoverable  grammatical  construction. 

42 


Cst. 

s. 


SENTENCES 

Wrong:  He  built  a  house  exactly  like  the  one  he 
used  to  live  in  Fort  Dodge. 

Right:  He  built  a  house  exactly  like  the  one  in 
which  he  used  to  live  in  Fort  Dodge. 

Cat.        In  revision  look  out  for  constructions  inadvertently 
^'       left  unfinished  somewhere  in  the  mazes  of  a  series  of 
loosely  connected  dependent  clauses. 

The  case  was  that  of  a  student  who,  coming  to 
college  from  a  country  town,  the  son  of  a  local 
physician,  a  man  of  limited  means,  but  with  the 
highest  ideals  for  the  future  of  his  son. 

Cat.        Sometimes  a  sentence  begun  on  one  construction  is 
finished  on  another. 

I  have  a  dear  little  sister  that  ever  was. 

cst.         In  definitions  and  other  sentences,  do  not  try  to 
°'      make  an  adverbial  clause  do  duty  as  a  predicate 
noun. 

Wrong:  The  pathetic  fallacy  is  when  inanimate 
objects  are  given  human  feelings.  . 

Right:  The  pathetic  fallacy  is  the  attribution 
of  human  feelings  to  inanimate  ob- 
jects. 

G.  Subject  and  verb  sometimes  disagree  when  the 

*^'''     verb  is  attracted  to  the  number  of  an  intervening 
noun. 

Wrang:  A  large  bouquet  of  roses  and  lilies  were 

presented  to  the  president's  wife. 
43 


A  GUIDE  TO  GOOD  ENGLISH    ' 
Looseness  of  Structure 

A  loose  sentence  is  one  which  is  grammatically 
complete  before  the  end,  usually  having  a  series  of 
clauses  after  the  main  verb.  A  periodic  sentence  is 
one  which  holds  the  mind  in  suspense  by  reserving 
to  the  end  some  essential  element  of  structure  and 
meaning,  usually  the  predicate. 

The  mark  L  for  ''bad,  loose  sentence"  may  be 
used  to  call  attention  to  a  sentence  which,  though 
not  incorrect,  would  be  better  for  a  more  periodic 
structure,  or  to  one  in  which  looseness  of  structure 
has  led  to  faults  in  unity,  coherence,  or  emphasis. 

Looseness  of  structure  may  be  a  fault  if  it  gives  an 
effect  of  informality  or  colloquialism  where  an  op- 
posite effect  is  desired. 

Since  the  end  of  a  sentence  is  the  most  emphatic 
part  of  it  (see  page  53),  a  loose  sentence  is  not  likely 
to  be  well  arranged  for  emphasis,  because  the  im- 
portant elements  come  at  the  beginning. 

Unity  and  Coherence — their  Relation  to  Structure 

Unity  in  the  sentence  is  singleness  of  thought  and 
structure. 

Coherence  in  the  sentence  is  the  clear  expression  of 

the  logical  relationship  between  the  clauses. 

L.  Faults  in  unity  and  coherence  may  be  corrected 

au.    even    when    they   are   not    clearly    understood    by 

making  a  sentence  periodic  in  structure,  because  the 

periodic  sentence  must  be  more  or  less  consciously 

44 


L. 

Bm. 


C. 
S.C 


SENTENCES 

planned  beforehand,  and  moves  to  a  foreseen  end. 
In  the  following  typical  ''bad,  loose  sentence" 
violations  of  the  principles  of  unity  and  coherence 
would  almost  inevitably  be  corrected  by  changing  it 
to  periodic  form. 

The  climax  answers  the  question  or  questions 
which  that  part  of  the  story  which  goes  before  it 
has  raised  in  the  reader's  mind,  and  these  ques- 
tions are  of  vital  importance  to  the  successful 
short  story,  since  by  raising  these  questions,  or  by 
getting  the  leading  characters  into  difficult  posi- 
tions, the  reader's  interest  is  aroused  in  the  out- 
come of  the  story,  thus  preventing  him,  in  a 
story  with  a  good  climax,  from  laying  aside  the 
story  until  he  has  reached  the  climax. 

Sentences  of  this  type  are  particularly  likely  to 
violate  the  principles  of  unity  and  coherence;  of 
unity,  because  the  addition  of  clause  after  clause 
leads  the  writer  away  from  the  main  verb  rather 
than  toward  it ;  of  coherence,  because  the  idea  of  the 
relationship  between  the  clauses  is  lost  in  the  mul- 
tiplicity of  their  number.  If  the  sentence  be  recast 
in  periodic  form  with  the  verb  at  the  end — ''The 
question  or  questions  .  .  .  are  answered  at  the 
climax" — it  would  be  almost  impossible  to  retain 
any  clauses  which  did  not  bear  a  clearly  indicated 
relationship  with  subject  or  verb. 

Coherence 

The  conamonest  violation  of  the  principle  of  co- 
herence is  in  compound  sentences  with  two  or  more 

45 


A  GUIDE  TO   GOOD  ENGLISH 

clauses  joined  by  and,  in  which  the  and  does  not 
express  the  relationship  between  the  clauses.  The 
precise  meaning  of  such  a  sentence  as,  ''I  went  to  the 
city  and  saw  Dr.  West,"  is  determined  by  the  con- 
text, not  by  the  sentence  itself.  By  itself  it  might 
express : 

Purpose:  I  went  to  the  city  to  see  Dr.  West. 
Time:       When  I  went  to  the  city  I  saw  Dr.  West. 
Place:       I  went  to  the  city,  where  I  saw  Dr. 

West. 
Cause:      Because  I  was  in  the  city  I  saw  Dr. 

West. 

or  any  variation  or  combination — "Inasmuch  as  I 
was  in  the  city  I  saw  Dr.  West " ;  "While  I  was  in  the 
city  I  saw  Dr.  West";  "Although  I  was  in  the  city  I 
saw  Dr.  West";  etc. 

The  remedy  for  this  fault  is  to  study  the  relation- 
ship between  the  clauses,  and  to  find  the  connective 
which  exactly  expresses  it.  In  almost  all  cases  it 
will  be  found  that  if  the  meaning  is  fully  expressed 
one  of  the  two  clauses  will  be  subordinate  to  the 
other,  that  is,  dependent  on  it  for  its  meaning — in 
exposition,  at  least,  it  is  comparatively  seldom  that 
and  expresses  truly  the  comparative  rank  of  the 
clauses.  In  revision,  scrutinize  every  and  used  as 
a  sentence  connective,  analyze  the  thought,  and 
choose  the  connective  which  fits  it  exactly.  En- 
large your  stock  of  connectives  until  you  are  un- 
willing to  use  the  least  expressive  of  them.  Study 
the  following  lists  of  connectives,  and  practise  the 

46 


SENTENCES 

use  of  them  until  you  have  made  them  a  part  of 
your  ordinary  vocabulary. 

Co-ordinating  ^ 

Additive:  and,  also,  moreover,  indeed,  in  the 
first  place,  secondly,  lastly,  both  .  .  .  and. 

Adversative,  disjunctive,  and  contrasting:  but, 
still,  however,  nevertheless,  notwithstanding,  none 
the  less,  not  the  less,  either,  neither,  or,  nor,  after 
all,  conversely,  on  the  one  hand  ...  on  the  other 
hand,  either ...  or,  neither , . .  nor,  whether  ...  or. 

Subordinating 

Of  time:  when,  whenever,  while,  now,  then, 
ere,  since,  henceforward,  thenceforward,  hence- 
forth, thenceforth,  whereon,  whereupon. 

Of  place:  where,  wherever,  whence,  there, 
thither,  hither,  thence,  hence,  whereon,  where- 
upon. 

Of  cause:  because,  since,  as,  for. 

Of  purpose: Jto  (with  infinitive),  that,  in  order 
that.  3 

Of  reason  or  consequence:  then,  therefore,  hence, 
thence,  since,  for,  on  that  account,  whereas  .  .  . 
therefore. 

Of  means  or  method:  whereby,  thereby,  thus, 
so,  however,  so  .  .  .  as. 

^"Co-ordinate"  means  of  the  same  order  or  rank,  performing 
the  same  office,  standing  in  the  same  construction.  A  co-ordinating 
conjunction  as  a  sentence  connective  may  join  two  independent 
clauses  or  two  dependent  clauses,  but  not  a  dependent  and  an 
independent  clause. 

4  47 


A  GUIDE  TO  GOOD  ENGLISH 

Relative:  relative  adverbs  of  time  and  place, 
relative  pronouns. 

Conditional :  if,  granting  that,  supposing  that, 
on  condition  that,  if  .  .  .  then. 

Concessional:  if,  though,  although,  assuming 
that,  admitting  that,  as,  indeed,  though  .  .  .  yet, 
although  .  .  .  nevertheless,  inasmuch  as,  in  so  far 
as. 

Of  supposition,  possibility,  apprehension:  though, 
if,  supposing,  it  may  be  that,  granting  that,  lest. 

Of  doubt,  question:  whether,  if,  whether  ...  or. 

Restrictive:  except,  provided,  on  condition  that, 
so  that,  unless,  at  least. 

Of  omission,  exception,  exclusion:  but,  except, 
unless,  without,  barring. 

Of  comparison,  equality,  proportion:  than,  as, 
so,  as  ...  as,  so  ...  as,  as  ...  so,  as  if. 

Of  illustration,  representation:  as,  so,  for  ex- 
ample, for  instance. 

c,  A  relative  clause  is  sometimes  incorrectly  joined 

wteh-with  the  main  clause  by  and,  but,  or  some  other 
^''     co-ordinating  conjunction. 

The  yacht  was  a  large  one  with  yawl  rig,  and 
which  had  once  been  a  sloop. 

The  head  of  the  colony  was  Ezra  Hoopeiy 
scarcely  more  than  twenty-five  years  old,  yet 
who  had  often  shown  his  ability  and  sound 
judgment. 

This  was  the  fall  of  McGuire,  the  political  boss 
of  Ashaway,  and  who  is  now  serving  a  term  in 
State's  Prison. 

Directly  before  me  the  Stamford  Light  ap- 
peared like  a  sleeping  dog  basking  in  the  sun, 

48 


SENTENCES 

but  which  would  later  blaze  forth  to  warn  ap- 
proaching vessels. 

And  introduces  a  clause  of  equal  rank  with  the 
main  one,  whereas  a  relative  clause  is  subordinate. 
The  clause  is  either  co-ordinate  or  subordinate,  but 
not  both.  Most  often  the  fault  may  be  easily  cor- 
rected by  striking  out  the  and.  Occasionally  the 
remedy  is  to  make  both  clauses  relative,  or  otherwise 
subordinate  to  some  other  clause. 
II  cst.  A  needless  shift  of  construction  within  the  sen- 
u,  tence  often  destroys  both  unity  and  coherence.  The 
principle  of  parallel  construction  (or  structure)  de- 
mands that  clauses  serving  the  same  purpose  in  the 
sentence  shall  be  in  the  same  construction. 

Wrong:  To  have  endurance  and  being  speedy 
are  necessary  for  the  game. 

Right:     Endurance  and  speed  are  necessary  for 
the  game. 

Wrong:  Positive  opinions,  keeping  oneself  in- 
formed, to  vote  at  every  election, 
these  are  the  requisites  for  member- 
ship. 
Right:  To  have  positive  opinions,  to  keep  one- 
self informed,  to  vote  at  every  elec- 
tion, these  are  the  requisites  for 
membership. 

c.  An  "absolute"  construction^  is  likely  to  lead  to 

c^i.    incoherence  or  lack  of  unity,  because  it  never  ex- 

"•      presses  its  relationship  to  other  parts  of  the  sentence. 

It  is  correct  when  it  refers  without  ambiguity  to  the 

*  For  a  definition  of  the  absolute  construction,  see  "  Outline  for 
Review  of  Grammar."  page  138. 

49 


A   GUIDE  TO   GOOD  ENGLISH 

subject  of  the  principal  verb,  and  can  logically  be 
placed  after  that  subject. 

A  German  by  birth,  he  served  in  the  Federal 
army  in  the  Civil  War, 

He,  a  German  by  birth,  served  in  the  Federal 
army  in  the  Civil  War. 

It  is  incorrect  when  it  refers  to  any  other  noun 
in  the  sentence,  and  cannot  logically  be  placed  after 
the  subject  of  the  main  verb. 

Fat  and  lazy,  we  could  hardly  make  the 
horses  move  at  all. 

It  is  incorrect  when  it  refers  to  a  substantive  idea 
implied  but  not  expressed. 

When  eight  years  old,  my  parents  moved  to 
Enid,  Oklahoma. 

Dang-  When  a  participle  is  left  so  hanging  without  a 
iJ^u-  noun  to  which  it  can  logically  be  attached,  it  is  called 
cipie    ^  ''dangling"  or  "suspended"  participle. 

Walking  across  the  yard,  a  noise  was  heard. 

Looking  down  the  valley,  the  view  is  charming. 

Wallowing  in  the  mud,  we  saw  the  pigs. 

After  walking  ten  miles,  the  hotel  came  in 
sight. 

At  last  my  seeds  sprouted.  Being  in  a  flower- 
pot, I  could  watch  them  grow. 

u.  The  unity  and  coherence  of  a  sentence  may  be 

cit.    destroyed  by  pronouns  or  other  words  referring  to 

nouns  implied  rather  than  expressed. 

50 


SENTENCES 

I  went  mushroom-hunting,  but  succeeded  in 
gathering  only  a  handful  of  them. 

Flintwinch  was  her  business  partner,  although 
the  lady  was  its  real  head. 


Unity 

The  principle  of  unity  is  violated  when  the  idea  of 
one  sentence  is  torn  apart  and  made  to  furnish  forth 
two  or,  even,  three  sentences. 

Bad:  The  cold  weather  has  arrived  at  last. 
This  is  the  coldest  weather  we  have  had 
this  winter.  The  thermometer  has  gone 
below  zero. 

Right:  For  the  first  time  this  winter  the  ther- 
mometer has  gone  below  zero. 

The  principle  of  unity  is  violated  when  the  ideas  of 
two  or  more  sentences  are  crowded  into  one. 

A  book  of  an  entirely  new  type,  the  author 
has  endeavored  to  prevent  the  ignorant  and  idle 
wasting  of  time  and  opportunity  during  the  first 
six  months  of  college  life. 

The  bearer  of  the  message  was  in  great  haste, 
and  was  very  poorly  dressed. 

If  the  second  of  these  examples  is  intended  to 
express  the  haste  of  the  messenger,  it  lacks  unity  of 
thought;  the  appearance  of  poverty  is  an  irrelevant 
detail.  If  the  two  ideas  have  any  connection,  the 
sentence  is  incoherent,  lacks  ''unity  of  expression," 

51 


u 


A  GUIDE  TO  GOOD  ENGLISH 

which  is  to  be  attained  by  expressing  the  connection 
between  the  two  ideas,  as: 

The  appearance  of  the  messenger  denoted  both 
haste  and  poverty. 

Or  in  the  case  of  the  first  example: 

The  author  has  made  an  entirely  new  attempt, 
namely,  to  prevent  the  ignorant  and  idle  waste  of 
time,  .  .  .  etc. 

When  a  sentence  is  marked  as  lacking  unity,  decide 
first  whether  or  not  the  apparently  irrelevant  de- 
tails have  any  real  connection  with  the  thought.  If 
not,  leave  them  out.  If  they  belong  in  the  sentence, 
express  their  relationship  to  the  main  idea.  In  other 
words,  test  the  unity  of  the  sentence  by  trying  to 
give  it  coherence. 

A  needless  shift  of  subject  in  a  sentence  which 
^'      contains  two  or  more  verbs  violates  unity  as  well  as 
coherence.     (See  page    57.) 

Wrong:  The  Democrats  nominated  Smith,  but 
the  party  refused  to  vote  for  him  at 
the  polls. 

Right:  The  Democrats  nominated  Smith,  but 
refused  to  vote  for  him  at  the  polls. 

Wrong:  At  last  we  arrived  at  the  Mansion  House, 
and  a  hearty  dinner  was  eaten. 

Right:     At    last    we    arrived    at   the    Mansion 
House,  where  we  ate  a  hearty  dinner. 
(See  discussion  of  passive  construc- 
tion, page  56.) 
52 


u 


SENTENCES 

The  childish  habit  of  joining  a  series  of  clauses  by 
successive  ands  almost  inevitably  leads  to  lack  of 
unity.     (See  page  46.) 

The  maiden  wanders  in  the  wood,  and  he  finds 
her  lost  in  the  forest,  and  so  makes  her  think 
he  is  a  shepherd,  and  brings  her  to  his  palace,  and 
tempts  her  in  every  way  possible,  and  she  al- 
ways gives  him  an  answer,  and  he  cannot  over- 
throw it. 

Mass  or  Emphasis 

The  principle  of  emphasis  calls  for  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  sentence  in  such  a  way  that  emphatic 
words  shall  be  where  emphasis  naturally  falls.  It 
has  been  named  **mass"  because  it  concerns  the  just 
distribution  in  the  sentence  of  the  weighty  or  im- 
portant elements.^  As  emphasis  is  given  to  words 
by  stress  and  pause,  the  emphatic  places  in  the 
sentence  are  the  end,  the  ends  of  clauses,  and  the 
beginning  of  the  sentence. 

Bad:  I  decided   at   last   to   go   to  Blank 

College,  because  it  was  best  adapted 
to  my  needs  on  the  whole,  I  thought. 

Emphatic:  At  last  I  decided  to  go  to  Blank 
College,  because  it  was  on  the 
whole,  as  I  thought,  best  adapted 
to  my  needs. 

A  word  repeated  before  more  than  one  of  the 
pauses  in  the  sentence  acquires  unusual  emphasis. 

^See  chapter  on  "Maes"  in  Prof.  Barrett  Wendell's  English 
Composition. 

53 


A  GUIDE  TO  GOOD  ENGLISH 

"  As  they  came  down  to  breakfast  that  morning, 
early  in  the  dark  January  morning,  he  observed 
that  his  mother  was  dressed  in  deep  mourning." 
"He  that  hath  ears  to  hear,  let  him  hear." 
"  And  the  Spirit  and  the  Bride  say  ' Come' ;  and 
let  him  that  heareth  say  'Come';  and  whomso- 
ever will,  let  him  come,  and  drink  of  the  waters 
of  Life  freely." 

Note  that  in  the  first  of  these  examples  it  is  not  the 
repetition,  but  the  emphasis  on  the  repeated  word 
that  is  disagreeable.  The  effect  of  the  repetition 
may  be  made  less  obvious  by  concealing  the  repeated 
word  in  unemphatic  places. 

As  they  came  down  that  morning  to  break- 
fast, in  the  early-morning,  January  darkness,  he 
observed  that  his  mother  was  dressed  in  deep 
mourning. 

The  emphasis  of  a  ''bad,  loose  sentence"  may  be 
unproved  by  making  the  sentence  periodic,  a  process 
which  will  bring  at  least  one  of  the  important  ele- 
ments into  an  emphatic  position. 

At  last,  because  it  was  on  the  whole,  as  I 
thought,  best  adapted  to  my  needs,  I  decided 
to  go  to  Blank  College. 

The  emphasis  of  a  loose  sentence  may  be  improved 
by  arrangement  for  climax.^ 

*" Climax"  is  the  arrangement  of  words,  sentence  elements,  sen- 
tences, paragraphs,  or  any  units  of  discourse,  in  progressive  order 
from  the  weakest  to  the  most  impressive.  The  arrangement  ending 
with  the  weakest  is  called  "anticlimax." 

54 


SENTENCES 

Bad:  The  matter  was  referred  to  the  com- 

mittee with  power,  who  decided 
that  the  first  plan  would  best  pro- 
mote the  true  religious  spirit,  and 
would  satisfy  the  greater  number, 
and  would  get  more  people  to  go  to 
church,  probably. 

Emphatic:  The  matter  was  referred  with  power 
to  the  committee,  who  decided  that 
the  first  plan  would  probably  in- 
duce more  people  to  go  to  church, 
would  satisfy  the  greater  number, 
and  would  best  promote  the  true 
religious  spirit. 

Emphasis  is  helped  by  balance  in  sentence  struc- 
ture (correspondence  in  sound  between  clauses)  and 
antithesis  (contrast  in  meaning  between  parts  which 
correspond  in  sound). 

"But  though  he  had  far  more  quarrels,  he  had 
far  fewer  compromises,  and  he  was  of  that  temper 
which  is  tortured  more  by  compromise  than  by 
quarrel." 

Our  efforts  have  seldom  been  in  vain;  yours 
have  never  been  successful. 

"They  are  for  hazarding  all  for  God  at  a  clap, 
and  I  am  for  taking  all  advantages  to  secure  my 
life  and  estate." 

A  word  may  be  emphasized  by  placing  it  out 
of  its  normal  order,  provided  that  the  perversion 
of  the  normal  order  is   not  so  violent  as  to  call 

55 


A  GUIDE  TO  GOOD  ENGLISH 

attention    to    itself   rather  than   to   the   emphatic 
word. 

Cbme,  then,  I  will,  as  fast  as  steam  will  bring 
me. 

"Meanwhile,  the  faster,  O  ye  black-aproned 
smiths,  smite;  with  strong  arm  and  willing 
heart." 

On  let  us  go;  backward  we  cannot  turn. 

Weak  Passive  Construction 

Cst.    W   (weak).     "Avoid  the  passive," 

Do  not  use  the  passive  voice  where  it  is  possible  to 
use  the  active  without  destroying  the  meaning  or 
coherence  of  the  sentence. 

Bad:  In  the  evening  there  were  refreshments, 
dancing,  boat-riding,  and  music,  and 
an  enjoyable  time  was  had. 

Better:   ...  all  present  had  a  delightful  time. 

Writers  sometimes  use  the  passive  construction  in 
describing  the  setting  of  a  story  before  they  have 
introduced  any  characters. 

Late  on  a  wild  November  evening  in  17 — ,  a 
solitary  horseman  might  have  been  seen  wending 
his  way  over  the  illimitable  plain. 

In  such  cases  it  is  better  to  establish  a  point  of 
view  by  introducing  some  one  who  can  see  the 
horseman,  or  to  leave  out  the  idea  of  seeing. 

Inexperienced  writers  often  use  the  passive  con- 

56 


SENTENCES 

struction  when  the  subject  is  vague,  general,  or  col- 
lective, as  in  the  first  example  of  the  construction 
given  above.  Usually  a  little  thought  will  supply 
an  appropriate  subject. 

It  is  sometimes  used  to  preserve  the  unity  of 
structure  of  a  sentence  by  avoiding  different  sub- 
jects for  two  or  more  verbs. 

He  adhered  to  the  faith  of  his  fathers,  and  was 
abundantly  blessed  by  God. 

In  such  a  sentence  the  theoretical  unity  of  struc- 
ture is  better  sacrificed  to  the  more  emphatic  form. 

He  adhered  to  the  faith  of  his  fathers,  and  God 
blessed  him  abundantly. 

The  objections  to  the  unnecessary  use  of  the 
passive  are: 

First:  a  passive  verb  is  always  weak  because  it  is 
quiescent,  it  does  no  active  work  in  the  sentence. 

Second:  when  placed  at  the  end  of  the  sentence 
(where  an  active  verb  is  so  often  well  placed)  it  is  the 
weakest  word  in  the  most  emphatic  position.  (See 
the  first  example  of  the  construction  given  above.) 

Third:  it  is  often  an  artificial,  unnecessary  perver- 
sion of  the  normal  form  of  speech.  We  do  not  say 
"Dinner  was  eaten  by  me,"  but,  "I  ate  dinner." 

Fourth:  it  may  make  an  absolute  or  participial 
construction  doubly  absurd  by  leaving  both  par- 
ticiple and  verb  without  subject,  as,  "Walking  across 
the  yard,  a  noise  was  heard." 

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A  GUIDE  TO  GOOD  ENGLISH 

Fifth:  It  tends  rather  to  violate  than  to  preserve 
the  principle  of  unity  of  structure;  as,  "They  went  to 
the  theater  in  the  evening,  and  a  delightful  play  was 


seen." 


Repetition — Redundancy — Tautology 
R.    Tg.     W  (wordy). 

The  disagreeable  repetition  of  a  word  in  a  sentence 
or  paragraph  is  a  fault  hard  to  guard  against  in  a 
first  draft,  but  usually  possible  to  remedy  in  revision. 
Sometimes  it  is  better  to  let  the  repetition  stand 
than  to  run  into  obscurity  or  awkwardness  in  the 
attempt  to  find  synonyms  or  circumlocutions. 
Sometimes  the  fault  may  be  remedied  by  concealing 
the  repeated  word  in  unemphatic  places  in  the  sen- 
tence.    (See  page  54.) 

Sometimes  an  idea  is  repeated  in  the  vain  attempt 
to  make  a  paragraph  of  it  because  it  is  the  only  idea 
the  writer  has. 

The  fellow  who  plays  the  gsi^}^  fairly  is  gener- 
ally one  who  is  respected  a  great  deal.  If  he 
plays  as  hard  as  he  can,  and  shows  that  he  is 
always  trying  to  do  the  square  thing,  he  will  have 
the  respect  of  every  one  who  knows  him.  Every- 
body will  think  well  of  him  if  he  does  what  he 
believes  to  be  the  right  thing  to  do  even  if  he  does 
not  win  the  game. 

The  remedy  is  to  put  one  of  the  sentences  into  good 
form,  as,  "The  man  who  plays  the  game  fairly  is 
always  respected  even  though  he  does  not  win,"  and 

58 


SENTENCES 

to  use  it  as  the  topic  sentence  of  the  paragraph,  de- 
veloping the  paragraph  by  bringing  forth  evidence, 
citing  instances,  or  any  appropriate  method. 

A  common  form  of  tautology  is  the  putting  to- 
gether of  synonymous  words  in  couplets  or  triplets, 
such  as  proud  and  haughty;  brave  and  fearless;  brave 
and  courageous;  brave  and  valiant;  fortitude,  courage, 
and  bravery.  If  there  is  any  difference  in  your  mind 
between  proud  and  haughty,  use  terms  that  will  make 
it  clear;  if  not,  ase  either  one  term  or  the  other,  but 
not  both. 

Redundancy  often  takes  the  form  of  a  complete 
disproportion  between  the  number  of  words  and  the 
idea  they  express. 

Redundant:  The  man  who  goes  into  an  office  at 
eighteen  has  not  the  advantage  of 
fresh  air,  since  his  business  com- 
pels him  to  remain  indoors,  and 
therefore  he  does  not  get  a  chance 
to  walk  in  the  country  to  obtain 
fresh  air. 

Concise:  The  man  who  is  confined  in  an  office 
from  the  age  of  eighteen  often  suffers 
from  the  lack  of  abundant  fresh  air. 

An  effect  of  dilution  is  produced  by  the  insertion 
in  the  sentence  of  unnecessary  monosyllabic  words. 

Redundant:  It  is  not  that  I  wish  to  deny  what  it 

is  obvious  must  be  the  fact. 

Concise:       I  will  not  deny  what  is  obviously  the 

fact. 

59 


A  GUIDE   TO   GOOD   ENGLISH 

Note  the  redundancy  of  prepositions  in  the  follow- 
ing common  expressions: 


add  up 

figure  up 

out  riding 

back  up 

finish  off 

out  West 

beat  up 

finish  up 

over  on 

break  up 

follow  on 

pack  up 

break  down 

follow  up 

rise  up 

burn  up 

from  off 

round  out 

cool  off 

from  out 

save  up 

cook  up 

hang  up 

sell  off 

connect  up 

heap  up 

sit  down 

cut  down 

hurry  up 

stand  up 

cut  up 

in   swimming 

study  up 

down  East 

lay  down 

start  up 

down  South 

lie  down 

stir  up 

eat  up 

lose  out 

use  up 

enter  in 

measure  up 

up  north 

fail  up 

meet  up  with 

up  on 

feed  up 

mix  up 

up  on  to 

fill  out 

on  to 

warm  up 

figure  out 

out  on 

win  out 

XI 

PARAGRAPHING 

IF  Noli 

Correct  paragraphing  is  a  matter  of  logical 
thinking.  Faults  in  paragraphing  cannot  be  cor- 
rected by  giving  the  mechanical  appearance  of  a 
paragraph  to  a  collection  of  words  or  sentences  which 
do  not  compose  a  logical  division  of  the  thought. 

A  paragraph  logically  consisting  of  only  one  sen- 
tence occurs  only  in  directly  quoted  conversation 
where  a  paragraph  is  given  to  each  speaker;  in  the 
form  of  a  transition  paragraph  to  indicate  a  division 
of  the  subject  longer  than  one  paragraph;  and  oc- 
casionally for  emphasis  in  narration.  Ordinarily 
paragraphs  of  a  sentence  in  length  indicate  incom- 
plete thought,  as  in  the  following: 

Should  the  Faculty  Supervise  Athletics? 

I  think  the  faculty  ought  to  supervise  athletics 
because  it  is  one  of  the  most  important  things  in 
college. 

A  man  cannot  study  unless  he  is  in  good  health, 
and  unless  his  health  is  good  he  is  a  poor  speci- 
men of  a  physical  man. 

I  think  athletics  is  as  important  as  Latin  or 

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A   GUIDE  TO   GOOD  ENGLISH 

English  for  a  man  to  know,  and  a  man  who  was  a 
good  athlete  in  college  can  get  a  position  afterward 
quicker  than  a  man  who  ruins  his  health  over 
books,  so  I  think  the  faculty  ought  to  teach  it. 

Athletics  is  a  fine  thing,  so  I  think  the  faculty- 
ought  to  be  interested  in  it  so  as  to  keep  the 
standard  up  as  high  as  possible  for  the  college. 

"A  sound  mind  in  a  sound  body"  is  a  good  old 
rule,  and  I  don't  think  any  faculty  could  ever 
make  a  better  one. 

Therefore  I  think  athletics  should  be  a  part  of 
the  college  course,  and  should  be  supervised  by 
the  faculty. 

It  is  evident  that  the  trouble  with  this  composition 
is  not  that  the  writer  does  not  know  the  difference 
between  a  sentence  and  a  paragraph,  but  that  he  is 
exerting  pressure  on  an  empty  and  reluctant  mind, 
from  which  he  is  squeezing  his  material  drop  by  drop. 
He  writes  a  sentence,  or  perhaps  only  a  clause,  and 
then  chews  his  pen  in  an  agonized  effort  to  evolve 
another,  which  when  it  comes  may  or  may  not  have 
any  connection  implied  or  expressed  with  the  previ- 
ous one.  The  result,  if  it  is  anything,  is  a  series  of 
topic  sentences.  In  some  cases  the  topics  of  two 
paragraphs  are  represented  in  a  single  sentence,  in 
others  the  sentence  is  a  repetition  of  a  clause  or 
sentence  above.  The  remedy  is  to  pick  out  from 
among  the  clauses  and  sentences  the  topics  of  the 
various  paragraphs,  arrange  them  in  logical  order,  and 
then  develop  each  one  into  a  paragraph  by  citing 
evidence,  by  definition,  by  explanation,  by  citing 
examples  or  illustrations,  by  showing  contrast,  or  by 

62 


PARAGRAPHING 

whatever  means  is  appropriate  to  the  individual  case. 
The  first  clause  of  the  second  sentence  in  the  theme 
quoted  above  might,  for  example,  be  developed  as 
follows : 

A  man  cannot  study  unless  he  is  in  good 
health — an  ordinary  man,  that  is.  I  know  that 
there  are  many  instances  of  powerful  minds  that 
have  done  effective  and  great  work  in  imperfect 
or  feeble  bodies,  as  in  the  cases  of  Stevenson, 
Heine,  Scott,  Lord  Byron.  I  believe,  however, 
that  those  minds  were  great  enough  to  triumph 
over  the  difficulty  of  the  unsound  body,  whereas 
the  ordinary  man  who  finds  it  hard  to  use  his 
mind  effectively  under  any  circumstances  would 
be  completely  prevented  from  so  doing  by  any 
bodily  weakness.  It  is  well  worth  while  for  us 
to  remove  from  our  path  as  many  difficulties  as 
we  can. 

A  whole  composition  written  illogically  as  one 
paragraph  may  be  corrected  by  picking  out  the  topic 
sentences,  arranging  them  in  logical  order,  and  writ- 
ing the  paragraph  that  belongs  to  each.  To  at- 
tempt to  remedy  the  fault  by  chopping  the  com- 
position into  lengths  and  indenting  the  first  line  of 
each  will  almost  inevitably  fail  because  the  writer 
who  does  not  write  paragraphs  does  not  think 
paragraphs,  and  if  the  thought  and  arrangement  are 
not  logical,  the  mechanical  division  will  not  make 
them  so. 

Paragraph  Unity 

n  u.       Unity  may  be  obtained  in  a  paragraph  which  lacks 
it  by  careful  attention  to  the  topic  and  the  topic 
5  63 


A  GUIDE  TO   GOOD  ENGLISH 

sentence.  Try  to  summarize  the  paragraph  in  a 
single  sentence.  If  this  is  difficult  or  impossible,  if  it 
cannot  be  done  in  a  unified  sentence,  decide  whether 
the  elements  which  make  it  difficult  have  any  logical 
place  in  the  paragraph.  Write  the  summarizing  sen- 
tence first,  as  the  topic  sentence;  then  the  other 
sentences,  expressing  by  connectives  the  relationship 
of  the  idea  of  each  sentence  to  the  main  idea.  As 
in  the  case  of  the  sentence,  test  the  unity  of  the 
paragraph  by  the  attempt  to  give  it  coherence. 

Paragraph  Coherence 

tc.  Lack  of  coherence  in  a  paragraph  is  remedied  by 
'^°'  studying  the  relationships  between  the  sentences 
and  supplying  the  connective  words  and  phrases 
which  express  them.  Although  these  relationships 
are  in  some  cases  apparent  from  a  logical  arrangement 
of  the  sentences,  both  clearness  and  ease  are  better 
served  by  the  use  of  connective  words  and  phrases 
which  express  and  emphasize  the  relationship.  Note 
the  effect  of  omitting  the  italicized  connectives  in  the 
following  paragraph: 

"A  sound  mind  in  a  sound  body" — the  ready- 
made  catchword  of  irrational  athletes  who  cling 
to  prejudices  because  they  cannot  form  opinions, 
— is  responsible  for  the  present  low  tide  of  intel- 
lectual interests  in  American  colleges.  In  the 
first  place,  it  is  not  true  in  the  sense  in  which  it 
passes  current,  namely,  that  "a  man  can't 
study  unless  he  is  in  good  health."    For  a  man 

who  can  study  at  all  can,  and  thousands  of  men 

64 


PARAGRAPHING 

do,  use  the  mind  constantly  and  effectively  in 
the  face  of  bodily  weakness  and  pain,  varying  in 
seriousness  from  headache  to  paralysis  or  con- 
sumption. These,  moreover,  are  not  the  con- 
spicuous exceptions  which  test  the  rule,  but  the 
army  of  unassuming,  every-day  thinkers  who 
supply  more  of  the  mental  illumination  of  the 
world  than  do  the  few  really  dazzling  lights. 
Indeed,  bodily  weakness  would  seem  to  offer 
better  stimulus  to  mental  activity  than  does  the 
bodily  strength  of  the  man  who,  pleasantly  tired 
from  exercise  and  replete  from  the  satisfaction 
of  the  consequent  appetite,  can  give  no  more 
exercise  to  his  mind  than  is  involved  in  dozing 
over  a  worthless  magazine.  In  the  second  place, 
if  it  is  true  that  the  mind  is  sounder  in  a  sound 
body  than  in  a  weak  one,  it  will  never  be  the 
better,  nor  will  it  ever  be  of  use  in  the  world, 
if  it  lies  fallow  for  the  four  years  meant  for  its 
training,  while  the  body  is  developed  to  the 
strength  of  an  Atlas  and  the  endurance  of  a 
Hercules  to  no  better  end  than  the  bearing  of 
other  men's  burdens  and  the  doing  of  other 
men's  labors. 

Transitions  between  paragraphs,  coherence  of  the 
whole  composition,  are  usually  expressed  by  the 
topic  sentences.  In  these  sentences  the  connectives 
usually  express  the  relationship  between  the  ideas  of 
the  paragraphs.  If  these  connectives  refer  directly 
to  the  last  sentence  of  the  preceding  paragraph,  the 
paragraphs  are  closely  knit  together. 

End  of  1st  ^:  

.  .  .  the  recent  pronouncement 

^5 


A  GUIDE  TO  GOOD  ENGLISH 

.  .  .  was  dictated  by  common 
sense. 

Beginning  ofSd^:  And  common  sense  is  always 

bound  to  make  itself  heard 
under  such  circumstances  .  .  . 

End  oj  2d  ^:  experience   must   always   re- 

main as  one  of  the  tests  for 
legislation  dealing  with  the 
intimacies  of  life. 

Beginning  ofSd^:  Conmaon  sense  applied  to  this 

question  denotes  something 
far  different  from  a  philosophy 
of  hard  facts.  .  .  . 

Emphasis 

Emphasis  in  the  paragraph,  as  in  the  sentence,  is 
obtained  by  putting  important  ideas  in  important 
places.  The  topic  Sentence  is  usually  placed  at  the 
beginning  for  emphasis;  it  is  important  because  it 
shows  what  the  paragraph  is  intended  to  accomplish. 
At  the  end  is  often  an  important  sentence  which 
shows  what  the  paragraph  has  accomplished.  If 
other  ideas  are  more  important  than  these,  they 
should  be  given  the  emphatic  positions. 

Ideas  may  be  emphasized  by  giving  them  more 
space  than  others.  In  the  paragraph  on  the  preced- 
ing page,  the  idea  introduced  by  the  connective  in  the 
first  place  is  developed  in  four  sentences,  whereas  the 
following  one  {in  the  second  place)  has  but  one. 


XII 

DICTION— CHOICE  OF  WORDS 
Diet.    C.W. 

Most  of  the  faults  discussed  under  this  heading 
are  those  usually  marked  Diet,  or  C.W.  Other 
marks  used  to  indicate  them  are  given  in  the  margin. 

Triteness 

Much-used  phrases  and  expressions  are  to  be  care- 
fully avoided.  They  are  shabby  and  shopworn,  and 
make  your  reader  feel  either  that  you  are  ignorant 
yourself,  or  consider  him  so.  They  are  like  ''ready- 
made"  clothes  in  that  being  made  for  the  average 
case  they  fit  no  individual  case  exactly.  Among  the 
worst  offenses  in  this  way  are  the  following: 

In  evidence;  along  these  lines;  along  the 
lines  of;  in  touch  with ;  meets  the  eye;  falls  upon 
the  ear;  bursts  upon  the  vision;  winds  like  a 
silvery  ribbon;  stands  like  a  guardian  sentinel; 
silhouetted  sharply  against  the  sky;  the  mirror- 
like  surface;  feathered  songsters;  all  Nature 
seemed;    order  out  of  chaos;    a  home  replete 

with  every  comfort;    a  long-felt  want;   the  last 

67 


A  GUIDE  TO  GOOD  ENGLISH 

sad  rites  had  been  performed;  doomed  to  dis- 
appointment; the  sun  sank  slowly  down  in  the 
west;  method  in  his  madness;  an  indescribable 
something;  at  one  fell  swoop;  dull,  sickening 
thud;  no  sooner  said  than  done;  the  light,  fan- 
tastic toe;  sadder  but  wiser;  drowned  his  sor- 
rows in  the  flowing  bowl;  sought  his  downy 
couch;   the  next  thing  on  the  program. 

TritJ'  Pompous  circumlocutions,  usually  introduced  to 
avoid  the  repetition  of  a  word,  are  offensive,  some- 
times in  themselves  and  sometimes  for  their  trite- 
ness. 

The  birds  were  singing  in  the  alders;  the 
brook  was  singing  too,  but  not  so  loudly  as 
the  feathered  songsters. 

This  fault  may  usually  be  remedied  by  recasting 
the  sentence. 

The  brook  was  singing,  and  in  the  alders  the 
birds  were  singing  even  more  loudly. 

It  is  better  to  use  no  quotations  at  all  than  to  use 
hackneyed  ones,  such,  for  example,  as  the  following: 

Shuffle  off  this  mortal  coil.     The  path  of  true 

love  never  did  run  smooth.     The  light,  fantastic 

toe.     Procrastination  is  the  thief  of  time.     God 

tempers  the  wind  to  the  shorn  lamb.     There  is 

a  tide  in  the  affairs  of  men.     In  the  spring  the 

young  man's  fancy  lightly  turns  to  thoughts  of 

love.     Some   are   born   great.     Bring   his   gray 

68 


DICTION— CHOICE  OF  WORDS 

hairs  in  sorrow  to  the  grave.     Where  ignorance 
is  bliss. 

Avoid  platitudes,  generalities,  trite  sayings,  and 
proverbs. 

Trite  Better  late  than  never.    All  men  are  not  alike. 

Honesty  is  the  best  policy.     It  is  the  first  step 
that  counts.     Somebody  has  to  be  the  first. 

^■^-  Such  phrases  are  even  worse  when  in  foreign  lan- 
guages. They  gain  nothing  in  force,  and  suggest 
affectation  of  learning  and  an  assumption  of  inferior- 
ity of  English.    Do  not  use  such  expressions  as : 

C'est  le  premier  pas  qui  cout.  Mens  sana  in 
corpore  sano.  Tempusfugit.  Alma  mater.  Cha- 
cun  a  son  gout.    Au  contraire. 

Figurative  language  includes  all  expressions  which 
are  not  literally  true,  but  which  are  used  as  a  device 
to  emphasize,  make  clear,  or  beautify  an  idea. 

A  simile  is  a  figure  of  speech  expressing  a  com- 
parison; as: 

"Where  London's  column,  pointing  at  the  skies, 
Like  a  tall  bully,  lifts  its  head  and  lies." 

A  metaphor  is  a  figure  of  speech  which  implies 

comparison  by  calling  one  thing  by  the  name  of 

another;  as,  "Life  is  a  vapor,"  or  assuming  it  to  be 

another;  as,  ''Shoot  folly  as  it  flies." 

J?g         A  metaphor  or  any  figure  of  speech  is  a  touch-and- 

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A  GUIDE  TO  GOOD  ENGLISH 

go  affair;  to  dwell  on  it  or  attempt  to  sustain  it  will 
usually  reduce  it  to  the  absurd.  The  difficulty  most 
often  arises  from  the  use  of  a  figure  without  regard  to 
the  literal  sense  of  the  words,  or  an  unconscious  shift 
from  one  figure  to  another  which  ''mixes"  the  meta- 
phor. Absurdities  are  most  likely  to  arise  in  the  use 
of  hackneyed  metaphors,  so  common  that  we  have 
lost  our  sense  of  the  literal  meaning  of  the  words. 

He  never  opened  his  mouth  but  that  he  put  his 
foot  in  it. 

That  drawback  is  easily  settled. 

A  forester  is  my  goal. 

Combining  these  three  factors,  the  sum  makes 
a  strong  reason. 

We  plunge  into  the  sea  of  life  having  a  divine 
hand  at  the  helm. 

c.  w.  Slang  is  an  extension  of  figurative  language  into  the 
realm  of  the  vulgar  and  the  grotesque.  It  is  objec- 
tionable in  the  first  place  because  of  its  air  of  vul- 
garity, and  in  the  second  place  because  the  instant 
its  freshness  has  worn  off  it  becomes  almost  mean- 
ingless in  its  application  on  the  vulgar  tongue  to 
things  fit  and  unfit. 

Cou.       Avoid  slangy  abbreviations  which  have  not  passed 

into  good  use,  such  as  auto,  phone,  gent,  pants,  exam. 

Particularly   offensive   is   the   use   of   the   slang 

nickname  of  a  city  to  avoid  repetition  of  the  real 

name. 

I  was  particularly  glad  to  get  to  Boston,  as  I 
had  never  seen  the  Hub  before. 

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DICTION— CHOICE  OF  WORDS 

Coll.  Contractions  such  as  haven't,  doesn't,  isn't,  and  the 
like,  give  an  effect  of  informality,  and  should  be  used 
in  written  discourse  only  when  such  an  effect  is  de- 
sired.    Ain't  is  under  the  ban  of  vulgarity.     Don't 

G.f     means  do  not,  and  must  not  be  used  for  does  not. 

F.w.       Stilted,  affected,  artificial   diction — "the  display 

T.  of  the  verbal  wardrobe" — is  sometimes  called  "fine 
writing."     It  is  always  in  bad  taste. 

Listen,  please,  to  a  little  of  my  own  personal 
experience.  In  my  girlhood  days,  when  attend- 
ing school,  I  studied  books  ('twas  the  fashion)  to 
the  best  of  my  ability;  then  when  I  graduated 
from  the  life  of  school  into  the  school  of  life  I 
seemed  to  take  a  turn  and  find  myself  delving 
into  knowledge  of  the  human  race,  and  for  many 
years  my  reading  has  been  of  the  peoples  on  this 
great  terrestrial  ball,  the  different  nationalities, 
their  homes,  customs,  and  the  like,  and  I  find 
myself  much  interested  in  humanity  at  large. 
So  it  is  we  gain  our  knowledge  of  books  from  a 
secular  standpoint,  and  then,  as  it  were,  we  plunge 
into  the  sea  of  life  having  a  divine  hand  at  the 
helm. 

What  object  in  nature  is  frailer  than  a  withered 
leaf  adhering  to  the  bough  by  a  single  thread, 
ready  to  be  carried  away  by  the  first  and  fleetest 
breath  of  wind?  Not  more  frail  than  the  babe  in 
the  arms  of  its  mother.  O,  how  sad  would  be 
your  heart  if  that  farewell  kiss  were  to  swell  upon 
the  air  and  sigh  on  and  on  for  ever.  Thank  God 
it  is  not  so. 

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A   GUIDE   TO   GOOD   ENGLISH 

SPECIFIC    ERRORS    IN    DICTION    ALPHABETICALLY 

ARRANGED 

The  following  errors  are  usually  marked  ''C.W." 
or  "Diet.,"  as  being  errors  in  choice  of  words,  or 
diction.  Some  of  them  may  be  indicated  by  other 
marks,  which  are  given  in  the  margin. 

Above  is  an  adverb,  not  an  adjective.  Say  "The 
address  given  above,"  not  "The  above  address"; 
the  "foregoing  section,"  not  the  "above  section." 

Aggravate  means  to  heighten,  intensify,  or  make 
worse.     Do  not  use  it  for  annoy  or  provoke. 

Allude  means  to  refer  to  indirectly,  and  is  not  the 
same  as  mention.  "By  mentioning  his  lifelong  com- 
panion he  alluded  to  his  wife." 
w.  Alma  mater  means  cherishing  mother,  and  should 
never  be  used  where  some  such  words  are  not  en- 
tirely appropriate.  The  phrase  has  been  so  much 
abused  that  it  is  as  well  to  avoid  it  entirely.  "My 
preparatory  alma  mater"  is  absurd. 

All  right  is  never  a  single  word.  It  is  slang  in  such 
expressions  as  "He  will  win  all  right,"  and  is  some- 
times spoken  of  as  an  Americanism  in  any  sense. 
Very  well  makes  a  satisfactory  substitute. 

And  should  not  be  used  instead  of  to  in  such  sen- 
tences as  "I'm  going  to  go  and  get  it,"  for  "I'm  going 
to  get  it";  "Try  and  do  it,"  for  "Try  to  do  it." 

Appreciate  means  to  estimate  justly.  "I  appre- 
ciate his  ill-will,"  means  "I  am  fully  aware  of  the 
extent  and  intensity  of  his  ill-will." 

Apt  means  quick  or  skilful.  "He  is  apt  to  learn," 
means   that   he   learns   readily.     "He   is   likely   to 


DICTION— CHOICE  OF  WORDS 

learn,"  means  that  he  will  probably  learn.  *'He  is 
liable  to  learn,"  is  incorrect.  Liable  for  means 
responsible  for;  liable  to  means  subject  to.  "He  is 
liable  for  the  entire  sum,  and  liable  to  imprisonment 
if  he  does  not  pay." 

As  does  not  mean  because,  but  is  rather  an 
elliptical  expression  for  inasmuch  as.  "  (I  must  ask 
you,  if  you)  please  (to)  excuse  Johnny's  absence, 
(inasmuch)  as  I  needed  him  at  home."  This  sen- 
tence is  fully  as  clear  if  a  semicolon  is  substituted  for 
as.  "Please  excuse  Johnny's  absence;  I  needed  him 
at  home." 

As  ...  as  (correlatives)  become  so  ...  as  after 
a  negative.     "The  new  laboratory  is  not  so  good  as 
the  old  one  in  some  respects." 
E.  Back  of  in  the  sense  of  behind  is  better  avoided.     It 

is  comparatively  blameless  in  itself,  but  it  leads  to 
such  vulgarisms  as  in  back  of  and  side  of  for  behind 
and  beside. 

Because  should  not  be  used  instead  of  that  to  intro- 
duce a  predicate  substantive  clause  giving  a  reason. 
"The  reason  was  that  1  didn't  have  enough  money." 

Because  of  is  an  adverbial  modifier,  du£  to  is  an 
adjective  modifier.  "The  disturbance  is  due  to  the 
discontent  of  the  people."  "The  people  are  dis- 
contented because  of  high  taxes." 

G.  Can  but  (think). 

B.  Cannot  but  (think). 

Cannot  help  but  (think). 

These  expressions  are  probably  all  three  elliptical; 
they  might  be  expressed  in  full,  as: 

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A  GUIDE  TO  GOOD  ENGLISH 

I  can  (do  naught  else)  but  think. 

I  cannot  (help  thinking,)  but  (I  must)  think. 

I  cannot  help  (thinking,)  but  (I  must)  think. 

The  second  is  attacked  as  illogical  on  the  ground 
that  when  we  say  we  can  not  but  think  we  really 
mean  we  can  but  think.  The  third  is  called  an 
absurd  confusion  between  /  cannot  hut  think  and 
/  cannot  help  thinking.  The  question  is  not  one  of 
logic,  but  of  good  use.  Criticism  may  be  avoided 
by  saying  either  /  can  hut  think  or  /  cannot  help 
thinking. 

Commence  is  a  more  formal  word  than  hegin.  To 
use  it  of  small  affairs  is  to  give  them  a  pompous  air. 

Cunning  means  crafty.  It  does  not  mean  pretty, 
attractive,  engaging,  comic,  quaint,  or  lively. 

Cute  is  slang  and  has  no  legitimate  use.  For 
possible  substitutes  see  Cunning. 

Demean  means  to  conduct  (oneself).  It  has  no 
connection  except  in  popular  error  with  mean  (small, 
contemptible),  and  does  not  mean  debase  or  degrade. 

Different  is  followed  by  from,  never  than.  Different 
than  is  gaining  ground  in  England,  but  it  is  far  from 
being  in  good  use  in  the  United  States. 

Doubt  takes  for  its  object  a  substantive  clause 
introduced  by  that  (not  what).  "I  doubt  that  he  will 
go."     ''I  do  not  doubt  but  that  he  will  stay." 

Du£  to;  see  Because  of. 

Each  other  probably  meant  originally  the  same  as 
one  another,  but  to-day  it  is  generally  used  as  apply- 
ing to  two  persons  or  things,  and  one  another  of 

three  or  more. 

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DICTION— CHOICE  OF  WORDS 

G.  Either  should  not  be  used  to  refer  to  one  of  three 

possibilities.     In  such  a  sentence  as  ''Either  you,  or 
I,  or  nobody  will  do  it,"  either  is  best  omitted. 

Element  means  a  component  part.     It  should  not 
be  used  to  name  a  process  or  an  action,  or  anything 
that  is  not  considered  distinctly  as  a  part  of  a  larger 
whole. 
a.  Enthuse  is  not  in  good  use. 

G.  Equally  should  not  be  followed  by  as.     If  a  thing  is 

as  good  as  something  else,  it  is  equally  good.     Do 
not  try  to  use  both  expressions  at  once. 

Etc.  is  an  abbreviation  for  et  cetera,  in  which  et 
means  and;  and  etc.  is  therefore  tautological.  The 
abbreviation  should  be  used  sparingly,  because  it  is 
an  abbreviation,  and  because  it  is  so  often  loosely 
used  to  mean  nothing.  Anything  real  that  it  stands 
for  is  often  better  specified;  if  it  means  nothing,  omit 
it.  As  an  abbreviation  it  may  be  avoided  by  the  use 
of  and  so  forth  or  and  the  like. 

Exit  means  "he  (she  or  it)  goes  out."  Exeunt 
means  "they  go  out."  He  exits  and  they  exeunt  are 
tautological,  and  they  exit  is  ungrammatical. 

Factor  means  one  of  the  numbers  which  when 
multiplied  together  give  a  certain  product.  It  is  not 
properly  used  of  anything  which  cannot  at  least 
figuratively  be  considered  as  contributing  to  a 
result. 

Farther  refers  to  space;  further  to  time,  degree, 
and  extensions  of  thought.  The  distinction  is  not  a 
necessary  one,  but  it  is  now  very  generally  observed. 

Fix  means  to  attach  or  make  firm.     In  the  sense 

of  repair  it  is  an  Americanism,  and  highly  colloquial. 

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A  GUIDE  TO  GOOD  ENGLISH 

In  various  senses  from  repair  to  punish  it  is  slang 
or  vulgarity  indicating  a  deplorable  poverty  of  vo- 
cabulary. 

Go  is  often  used  followed  by  and  with  a  finite  verb 
to  indicate  purpose  where  the  infinitive  would  be  more 
coherent.  Say,  "I  shall  go  to  see  him  to-morrow," 
not  "go  and  see."  In  a  sentence  like  "He  went  and 
bought  a  book,"  went  and  is  redundant.  "He  went 
and  threw  a  stone  at  me  "  is  a  mere  puerility. 

Gtiess  is  correctly  used  only  to  express  conjecture. 
"I  guess  it  is  dinner-time"  is  correct  if  the  speaker 
does  not  know  the  time  of  day  or  the  dinner-hour. 
If  he  merely  wishes  to  make  a  suggestion,  it  would 
be  more  correctly  made  in  another  form. 

Good  in  such  phrases  as  good  and  warm,  good  and 
sweet  (so  also  nice  and  strong),  meaning  very  or  some- 
thing less,  may  be  idiomatic,  but  it  is  so  vague  a 
phrase  of  commendation  that  something  more  specific 
had  better  be  used.     Good  and  plenty  is  slang. 

Got  is  to  be  preferred  to  the  obsolescent  gotten. 
It  is  redundant  with  have  to  denote  possession  or 
compulsion,  as  have  got  for  have,  have  got  to  for  have  to, 
have  got  to  get  for  have  to  get.  It  does  not  mean 
go  {get  over  the  road),  become  {get  to  be — "What 
time  is  it  getting  to  be?"),  or  find  opportunity  {get 
to  go). 

Handicap  does  not  mean  merely  a  hindrance,  but 
a  hindrance  to  the  best  man  purposely  devised  to 
equalize  the  chance  among  competitors. 

Hardly  is  in  itself  a  negative ;  not  hardly  is  incorrect, 
because  it  is  a  double  negative  which,  when  scruti- 
nized, has  the  force  of  an  affirmative. 

76 


DICTION— CHOICE  OF  WORDS 

Healthy  and  healthful  should  be  distinguished,  as 
in  the  sentence,  "Bread  and  milk  is  a  healthful  food 
which  makes  healthy  children." 
G.  Home  as  an  adverb  is  used  without  a  preposition 

only  after  verbs  of  motion;  ''I  am  going  home,"  but 
not  "I  am  home." 

Home  as  a  noun  is  not  synonymous  with  house. 

Individual  does  not  mean  merely  person,  but  in- 
dividual person.  It  should  not  be  used  except  to 
indicate  individuality  or  entity. 

It  is  properly  used  to  introduce  impersonal  verbs, 
as  "It  is  impossible  to  say  whether  or  not  it  will 
E.  rain,"  but  is  vulgar  or  slangy  in  such  phrases  as 
"You  will  catch  it,"  "He  is  going  it  pretty  fast," 
"Which  is  coming  it  strong." 
sp.  It,  her,  and  other  personal  pronouns  take  no 
apostrophe  in  the  possessive. 

After  kind  of  and  sort  of  the  article  a  is  redundant ; 
say  "that  kind  of,"  "this  sort  of,"  and  the  like. 
Kind  of  a  and  sort  of  a  as  weak  modifiers  are  con- 
fessions of  inadequate  vocabulary.  The  remedies 
are:  1,  omit  the  phrase;  2,  substitute  very  or  some 
other  modifier;  3,  put  the  a  before  kind  and  then 
ask  and  answer  the  question  "What  kind?"  Not 
till  then  is  the  expression  complete. 
G.  Lay  is  the  causative  verb  from  lie,  and  means  to 

make  to  lie.  Only  with  the  reflexive  does  it  mean 
the  same  as  lie,  as  in  "Now  I  lay  me  (myself)  down 
to  sleep."  The  principal  parts  of  lie  are  lie,  lay,  lain; 
of  lay,  lay,  laid,  laid.     Lay  is  necessarily  transitive. 

Liable;  see  Apt. 
Q-  Like  has  the  force  of  an  adjective,  whereas  as  is 

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A  GUIDE  TO  GOOD  ENGLISH 

adverbial.  "I  can  run  like  John"  is  acceptable 
when  it  means  "I,  like  John,  can  run."  If  it  is  to  be 
completed  by  the  repetition  of  the  verb  (I  can  run 
like  John  can  run)  the  phrase  is  adverbial,  describes 
the  action  of  the  verb,  and  requires  as.  The  speaker 
may  be  like  John,  or  look  like  John,  but  he  does  as 
John  does. 
B.  Mad  means  angry  only  by  metaphor,  insane  with 

anger,  as: 

"It  will  inflame  you,  it  will  make  you  mad." 

"...  it  made  me  mad 

To  see  him  shine  so  brisk  ..." 

Myself;  see  page  39. 
5.  Nerve  may  be  correctly  used  to  mean  courage  (by 

metaphor  from  sinew  and  strength),  but  in  the  sense 
of  impudence  it  is  nothing  but  slang. 

Only  is  best  placed  immediately  before  the  word 
it  modifies.  In  case  there  can  be  no  ambiguity  it 
may  be  placed  immediately  after  the  word  it  modifies. 

Only  I  wrote  to  him  to-day.  (No  one  else 
wrote.) 

I  only  wrote  to  him  yesterday.  (I  did  not 
telephone.) 

I  wrote  only  to  him  to-day.  (I  wrote  to  no 
one  else.) 

I  wrote  to  him  only  to-day.  (No  longer  ago 
than  to-day.) 

I  wrote  him  to-day  only.  (I  had  not  written 
before.) 

This  car  for  members  only.     (For  none  but 

members.) 

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DICTION— CHOICE  OF  WORDS 

Per  should  be  followed  by  a  Latin  word,  not  Eng- 
lish. If  you  must  use  Latin,  say  ''three  meals 
per  diem";  better  say  ''three  meals  a  day."  "One 
thousand  dollars  per  annum"  is  correct,  but  "a 
thousand  dollars  a  year"  is  English.  Per  with  no 
word  following  is  slang:  "He  is  still  working  for  one 
fifty  per." 
Coll.        Pretty  for  fairly  or  rather  is  colloquial. 

A  proposition  is  a  subject  for  debate  or  a  basis  of 
negotiation.  To  apply  the  term  indiscriminately  to 
a  girl,  a  golf -ball,  a  dress-suit,  or  a  transatlantic  liner 
is  either  slang  or  the  result  of  ignorance. 

Quit  in  the  sense  of  stop  is  colloquial.  Among 
its  various  meanings,  the  commonest  is  abandon  or 
leave. 

Quite  means  either  entirely  or  greatly.     It  is  in- 
correctly used  for  the  weak  sense  of  very. 
Coll.        Quite  a,  as  in  "quite  a  while,"  "quite  a  number," 
is  colloquial.     Quite  a  Jew  and  quite  a  little  are  incor- 
rect for  a  good  many,  and  quite  some  is  vulgar. 

Reason  should  be  followed  by  a  predicate  substan- 
tive clause  introduced  by  that,  not  by  a  causal  clause. 
Say  "The  reason  was  that  I  had  a  cold,"  not  "The 
reason  was  because  I  had  a  cold." 
K.  Reverend,  honorable,  and  the  like,  when  used  with 

names  of  persons,  must  be  preceded  by  the  and 
followed  by  Mr.  Say  "The  Reverend  Mr.  Smith," 
not  "Rev.  Smith";  "The  Honorable  Mr.  Jones," 
not  "Hon.  Jones." 

Said  as  an  adjective  meaning  "already  mentioned " 
is  a  bit  of  technical,  legal  phrasing  which  in  ordinary 
discourse  is  either  redundant  or  slangy. 

6  79 


A  GUIDE  TO  GOOD  ENGLISH 

Same  should  never  be  used  as  a  pronoun,  as,  "I 
have  ordered  the  ammunition,  and  will  advise  you 
of  the  receipt  of  the  same." 

Same  as  is  an  adjective  phrase  which  should  never 
be  used  adverbially.  Do  not  say  ''He  thinks  the 
same  as  I  do,"  but  "He  thinks  just  as  I  do,"  or,  if  it 
is  what  you  mean,  "His  thoughts  are  the  same  as 


mine." 


Seldom  if  ever  and  seldom  or  never  are  correct. 
Seldom  ever  and  seldom  never  are  ellipses  not  idio- 
matic nor  in  good  use. 

Set  is  a  causative  verb  from  sit  (see  lie  and  lay) 
and  means  to  make  to  sit.  Set  is  transitive  and  sit 
intransitive.  The  principal  parts  are  sit,  sat,  sat; 
set,  set,  set. 

Start  means  (among  other  things)  to  cause  to  be- 
gin, but  it  does  not  mean  begin.  It  is  not  correctly 
used  with  an  infinitive,  nor  with  reference  to  any- 
thing which  has  no  power  of  motion.  One  may 
start  an  engine,  but  not  a  book. 

Take  and  is  usually  redundant.  "He  took  the 
board  and  sawed  it  in  two"  says  no  more  than  "He 
sawed  the  board  in  two."  Habitual  use  of  the  ex- 
pression leads  to  such  puerilities  as  "He  took  and 
hit  me." 

Team  means  a  set  or  group,  usually  of  animals 
harnessed  together;  it  is  not  correctly  used  of  one 
horse,  or  of  a  wagon,  or  of  one  horse  and  wagon. 

Tend  (in  the  sense  of  look  after)  differs  from  attend 

in  that  it  takes  a  direct  object,  not  an  indirect  object 

with  to:    "In  tending  his  shop  he  was  obliged  to 

attend  to  the  wants  of  many  customers." 

80 


DICTION— CHOICE  OF  WORDS 

Transpire  does  not  mean  to  occur;  it  means  to 
become  known:  "The  marriage  took  place  six  months 
before  it  transpired." 

Do  not  use  they  indefinitely  instead  of  every  one,  as, 
"They  are  always  in  a  hurry  in  the  city";  better 
say  "Every  one  is  in  a  hurry  in  the  city." 

Avoid  want  in   the  sense  of   "ought"   or   "had 
better,"  as,  "You  want  to  hurry  if  you  are  going  to 
catch  the  car";   better  say  "You  had  better  hurry 
if  you  expect  to  catch  the  car." 
E.  Way  should  not  be  used  for  away.     "I  saw  him 

away  (not  way)  down  the  road." 

In  the  sense  of  distance  it  is  singular  in  form. 
"The  post-office  is  a  httle  way  (not  ways)  farther  to 
the  south." 
Coll.  You  in  the  indefinite  sense  gives  the  effect  of  spoken 
rather  than  formal  written  discourse,  and  is  monoto- 
nous if  used  continuously  for  any  length  of  time.  It 
is  colloquial  to  say  "You  don't  wear  a  silk  hat  south 
of  Main  Street."  The  formal  expression  is,  "No  one 
wears  a  silk  hat  south  of  Main  Street"  or  "Do  not 
wear  a  silk  hat  south  of  Main  Street." 

Yourself;  see  page  39. 


XIII 

LETTER-WRITING 

Form  of  BiLsiness  and  Personal  Letters 

The  date  line  of  a  letter  informs  the  reader  when 
and  where  the  letter  was  written.  The  place  should 
be  given  in  the  form  of  the  writer's  post-office  address, 
and  the  date  should  be  given  in  full,  including  the 
year.  It  may  be  written  at  the  head  of  the  letter 
on  the  right  of  the  sheet,  or  at  the  close  on  the  left  of 
the  sheet,  but  should  not  be  separated — that  is,  with 
the  date  in  one  of  these  positions  and  the  place  in  the 
other.     It  is  written  and  punctuated  as  follows: 

3131  Prairie  Avenue, 
Chicago,  Illinois, 

December  30,  1900. 

Amherst,  Massachusetts, 
10  October,  1913. 

Camp  Whippoorwill, 

West  Pelham,  Massachusetts, 
12  July,  1913. 

In  business  letters  and  all  dictated  letters  the 

name  and  address  of  the  recipient  are  written  above 

the  salutation,  as: 

82 


LETTER-WRITING 

Mr.  Vivian  Crewe, 
212  Fifth  Avenue, 
New  York  City. 

Dear  Sir: 

Mr.  Robert  Wilson, 

812  Pine  Boulevard, 
Fort  Dodge,  Iowa. 

Dear  Robert, 

In  personal  letters  the  name  and  address  of  the 
recipient  are  sometimes  written  below  the  signature 
on  the  left,  but  in  personal  letters  not  dictated  they 
are  unnecessary. 

Salutations  properly  used  in  business  letters  are 
as  follows: 

Dear  Sir:  Gentlemen: 

My  dear  Sir:  Dear  Madam: 

Dear  Sirs:  My  dear  Madam: 
My  dear  Sirs: 

Madam  is  used  in  addressing  a  woman  whether 
married  or  unmarried.  The  abbreviation  Messrs,  is 
not  used  as  a  salutation. 

In  both  business  and  personal  letters  it  is  appro- 
priate to  address  one  whom  you  know  by  the  name 
by  which  you  are  accustomed  to  call  him. 

Salutations  beginning  with  My  {My  dear  Sir, 
My  dear  Mr.  Lewis)  are  a  degree  more  formal  than 
the  same  forms  without  the  My. 

Such  salutations  as  Dear  Friend,  Friend  John,  are 
not  in  good  use. 

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A  GUIDE  TO  GOOD  ENGLISH 

A  colon  or  colon  and  dash  is  used  after  the  saluta- 
tion in  business  letters,  a  comma  or  comma  and  dash 
in  informal  letters. 

Do  not  use  abbreviations.  As  a  matter  of  courtesy 
to  your  correspondent,  give  him  the  impression  that 
you  can  spare  to  him  even  the  precious  seconds 
necessary  to  write  out  in  full  the  name  of  the  month, 
the  name  of  the  State,  and  the  words  ''Street"  and 
"Avenue."  Never  use  the  sign  &  unless  it  be  in 
names  of  firms  of  which  it  seems  customarily  a  part. 
Abbreviate  Mr.,  Mrs.,  Dr.,  U.  S.  A.,  and  D.  C,  and 
certain  titles  following  names,  as  K.C.B.,  LL.D., 
Ph.D.,  F.R.S.,  Esq.,  and  the  like.  When  the  title 
Esquire  follows  a  name,  no  title  should  precede  it, 
not  even  Mr. 

Do  not  omit  pronouns  and  other  words  after  the 
fashion  of  a  telegram. 

Ready-made  phrases  are  in  bad  taste  either  in 
business  or  personal  letters. 

Bad:    Yours  received  and  contents  noted;    in 

reply  would  say  .  .  . 
Good:  I  have  received  your  letter  of  January 

sixth,  and  wish  to  say  in  reply  .  .  . 
Bad:    I  take  my  pen  in  hand  to  say  .  .  . 

.  .  .  and  hope  you  are  the  same. 

Forms   of   complimentary   close   appropriate   for 

business  letters  are   Yours  truly;    Yours  very  truly; 

Very  truly  yours.     Yours  respectfully  is  appropriate 

only  in  cases  in  which  for  a  definite  reason  respect  is 

due,  as  in  a  letter  to  an  official  or  dignitary  from  one 

below  him  in  rank. 

84 


LETTER-WRITING 

Forms  of  the  complimentary  close  appropriate  for 
personal  letters  are  Sincerely  yours;  Cordially  yours; 
Faithfully  yours;  Affectionately  yours,  and  the  like. 

The  complimentary  close  stands  in  a  line  by  itself, 
and  begins  with  a  capital  letter,  even  when  gram- 
matically it  forms  a  part  of  a  sentence. 

Trusting  that  you  will  consider  this  request 
reasonable,  and  find  no  difficulty  in  granting  it, 
I  remain, 

Sincerely  yours, 

The  signatm-e  belongs  below  the  complimentary 
close  and  a  little  to  the  right.  Nothing  else  should 
be  placed  in  this  position  except  any  necessary  indi- 
cation of  ojBfice  or  rank  which  may  be  a  part  of  the 
official  signature,  as: 

Wilton  Dix,  Secretary. 

Thomas  J.  Smith,  Collector. 

U.  S.  Grant,  Lieutenant-General. 

A  woman  signing  a  business  letter  should  indicate 
how  she  is  to  be  addressed  in  reply,  as: 

Yours  very  truly, 

(Miss)  Annette  Ripley. 

Yours  very  truly, 

Mary  Ware. 
Mrs.  Elton  Ware, 

209  F  Street, 

Elkhorn, 

Indiana. 

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A  GUIDE  TO   GOOD  ENGLISH 

Impersonal  Letters 

Formal  invitations  and  replies  are  written  in  the 
third  person  and  the  present  tense  throughout,  and 
without  salutation,  complimentary  close,  or  signature. 

The  reply  to  a  formal  invitation  should  be  dated 
below  at  the  left.  The  writer's  address  may  be 
omitted,  and  the  year  is  usually  omitted.  The  day 
of  the  month  is  written  in  full. 

In  an  acceptance,  repeat  the  day  and  hour  men- 
tioned in  the  invitation.  In  declining,  it  is  unneces- 
sary to  mention  more  than  the  day. 

Examples: 
Formal  invitation: 

Mrs.  George  Hemshaw  requests  the  pleasure 
of  Miss  Anna  Hamilton's  company  at  dinner  on 
Thursday,  January  fifth,  at  seven  o'clock. 

36  Ray  Street. 

Formal  reply  accepting: 

Miss  Anna  Hamilton  accepts  with  pleasure 
Mrs.  Hernshaw's  kind  invitation  for  Thursday, 
January  fifth,  at  seven  o'clock. 

December  28. 

Formal  reply  declining: 

Miss  Hamilton  regrets  that  she  is  unable  to 
accept  Mrs.  Hernshaw's  kind  invitation  for 
Thursday,  January  fifth,  at  seven  o'clock. 

December  28. 

Business  Letters 

The  rule  for  business  letters  is  a  rule  of  three: 
Clearness,    Conciseness,    Courtesy.     The   successful 

86 


LETTER-WRITING 

writer  of  business  letters  is  he  who  gains  all  three, 
no  one  at  the  expense  of  the  others. 

The  following  letter  is  an  attempt  at  conciseness. 
It  is  reasonably  clear,  but  barely  courteous. 

(Letter  Head) 

Boston,  Mass.,  January  5th.  1911. 
Mr.  J.  P.  Blank, 

Smith\alle,  Ga. 
Dear  Sir: — 

In  reply  to  your  letter,  of  the  3rd.  would  say, 
that  your  order  and  check  was  received  by  us  on 
the  14th  of  December. 

The  order  was  entered  and  shipped  via.  Ex- 
press by  us  on  the  14th. 

We  regret  to  report  that  the  box  was  marked 
for  the  Smithville  School,  Smithville  Ga.  and 
your  name  did  not  appear  on  the  box  at  all. 

The  box  you  will  no  doubt  find  at  the  school, 
and  if  you  are  put  to  any  extra  expense  in  getting 
the  same,  you  can  charge  it  to  us. 
We  regret  the  mistake  in  marking  the  box. 

Yours  very  truly 

World  Lamp  Co. 

This  letter  may  seem  acceptable  at  first  glance, 
but  it  will  not  bear  a  second.     Note  that 

1.  The  date  line  should  have  been  written  "Janu- 
ary 5,"  etc. 

2.  *'In  reply  .  .  .  would  say"  is  trite,  telegraphic, 
questionable  as  to  syntax,  and  wrongly  punctuated. 

3.  ''Order  and  check  was  received  by  us" — is 
''order  and  check"  one  document  or  two?  Why  the 
awkward  passive  construction?     (See  page  56.) 

87 


A  GUIDE  TO  GOOD   ENGLISH 

4.  This  and  all  other  sentences  in  the  letter  a\e 
written  as  separate  paragraphs;  not  one  actually  is  a 
paragraph. 

5.  The  second  sentence  repeats  the  awkward  pas- 
sive construction  (which  might  be  better  if  the  ''by 
us"  were  omitted),  and  uses  the  Latin  via  with  the 
English  word  "express."  ''By"  is  the  English 
word,  and  "Express"  should  have  no  capital. 

6.  "The  box  was  marked" — passive  again;  who 
marked  it?  Note  the  repetition  in  three  successive 
lines  of  "the  box."  Regardless  of  the  number  of 
words  involved,  the  repetition  gives  the  effect  of 
prolixity. 

7.  "The  same";  a  bit  of  legal  phrasing  which  has 
crept  into  the  business  dialect  at  the  expense  of  con- 
ciseness and  purity.  "It"  is  usually  the  right 
word. 

8.  The  slight  rebate  for  transportation  and  the 
perfunctory  regret  are  tossed  to  the  customer  as  one 
might  toss  a  bone  to  a  stray  cur.  In  any  case, 
"may"  should  take  the  place  of  "can." 

9.  There  should  be  a  comma  after  "truly." 

The  letter  when  put  into  good  form  is  no  longer, 
and  is  more  courteous: 

We  have  traced  the  goods  you  inquire  about 
in  your  letter  of  January  3d.  We  find  that  we 
received  the  order  and  the  check,  entered  the 
order,  and  sent  the  lamps  by  express,  on  Decem- 
ber 14th.  We  are  sorry  to  say,  however,  that 
we  marked  the  box,  "Smith  School,  Smithville, 
Ga."     We  have  no  doubt  that  you  will  find  the 

box  at  the  school  building,  and  assure  you  that 

88 


LETTER-WRITING 

we  shall  be  glad  to  pay  for  its  transportation  to 
your  house. 

We  are  sincerely  sorry  for  the  mistake,  and 
hope  to  be  able  to  serve  you  better  another  time. 

Yours  very  truly, 

The  more  courteous  form  of  this  letter  is  almost 
exactly  the  length  of  the  other — if  anything,  it  is  a 
little  more  concise. 

(Letter  Head) 

Springfield,  Mass.  11/25/14 
Mr.  R.  P.  Utter, 
Amherst,  Mass. 

Dear  Sir: 

Referring  to  your  recent  request  for  advertising 
matter  for  the  Leyland  and  Donaldson  Lines. 
I  have  been  unable  to  secure  Lejiand  line 
sailings  for  the  month  of  June  as  I  am  just 
advised  by  the  company  that  these  have  not  as 
yet  been  made  up.  The  Leyland  Line  will  this 
year  carry  but  one  class  of  passengers  which  will 
be  designated  as  second  class  and  the  rate  will  be 
very  moderate  and  much  cheaper  than  last  year; 
I  judge  ranging  from  $50.00  upwards.  I  will 
bear  your  request  in  mind  and  send  you  sailing 
lists  just  as  soon  as  I  receive  same.  The  Donald- 
son Line  people  advise  me  that  their  printed 
matter  for  next  year  is  now  in  preparation  and 
we  shall  be  supplied  within  a  short  time. 

Yours  truly, 

Note  in  this  letter  that 

1.  The  sentences  fairlv  gasp  with  haste.     This 

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A  GUIDE  TO  GOOD  ENGLISH 

effect  is  probably  due  to  the  complete  absence  of 
commas. 

2.  The  date  line  written  in  numbers  is  out  of 
place  anywhere  except  in  a  penciled  memorandum. 
In  any  case,  it  should  end  with  a  period. 

3.  The  opening  words  form  a  clause,  not  a  sen- 
tence.    The  second  ''for"  should  be  ''of." 

4.  In  the  second  sentence  there  should  be  a  semi- 
colon after  "June";  "as"  should  be  "in  fact"  or  its 
equivalent;  "I  am  advised"  should  be  "I  have  been 
told." 

5.  In  the  next  to  the  last  sentence  "same"  should 
be  "them." 

6.  In  the  last  sentence  ' '  people  "  should  be  omitted, 
and  "advise"  should  be  "tell  me." 

7.  The  writer  has  no  sentence-connective  but 
"and,"  with  the  exception  of  "as,"  of  which  he  does 
not  know  the  meaning. 

8.  This  letter  was  signed  with  an  illegible  scrawl 
in  copying-pencil ;  it  should  have  been  signed  legibly 
in  ink. 


Part   II 
METHOD 


COLLECTING    MATERIAL 

INTELLECTUAL  HONESTY 

In  work  which  is  chiefly  compilation,  inexperi- 
enced students,  through  ignorance  and  carelessness, 
often  present  as  their  own  ideas  and  words  which 
should  be  attributed  to  others.  This  occurs  through 
ignorance  as  to  what  ideas  are  the  commonplaces  of 
the  subject — the  general  fund  and  common  property 
of  all  workers  in  it:  ideas  to  which  no  one  would 
think  of  advancing  any  claim  to  originality — and 
what  ideas  are  those  to  which  property  rights  should 
be  attached.  It  occurs  through  carelessness  in  note- 
taking,  by  which  words  and  sentences  belonging  to 
others  are  not  distinguished  by  quotation  marks 
and  references,  and  so  pass  undistinguished  into  the 
finished  work. 

Students  sometimes  assume  that  because  the  com- 
mon fund  of  information  on  a  subject  is  used  without 
quoting,  everything  is  common  property.  The  dis- 
tinction between  what  is  common  property  and  what 
is  not  cannot  be  made  by  a  student  who  reads  noth- 
ing but  an  encyclopedia  article  on  a  subject  and 
makes  a  summary  of  it  for  his  theme  or  essav^    He 

93 


A  GUIDE  TO  GOOD  ENGLISH 

must  read  many  books  and  articles  on  a  subject, 
study  it  until  it  becomes  a  part  of  his  own  knowledge, 
then  lay  all  books  aside  and  write  on  the  subject  as  he 
knows  it,  with  a  general  acknowledgment  of  sources 
and  specific  acknowledgments  of  quotations.  Un- 
less the  task  is  nothing  more  or  less  than  the  sum- 
marizing of  a  particular  book  or  article,  three  sources 
at  the  very  least  should  be  carefully  studied,  and  no 
student  should  be  satisfied  with  so  few  as  three  if 
time  and  the  importance  of  the  task  will  allow  him 
to  consult  more.  The  ideas  that  the  three  or  more 
have  in  common  are  probably,  so  far  as  they  go,  the 
fundamentals,  the  commonplaces,  the  ones  the  student 
will  retain  in  his  own  general  fund  of  information. 
They  may  be  safely  covered  by  the  general  reference 
to  the  sources  which  the  student  has  consulted.  All 
other  ideas  not  the  student's  own  should  be  scrupu- 
lously acknowledged. 

FOEM   OF   REFERENCES 

All  references  should  be  given  in  such  form  that 
they  may  be  readily  found  and  identified.  General 
references  may  stand  together  at  the  beginning  or 
end  of  the  essay  in  some  such  form  as  the  following: 

General  References 

Gummere,  Beginnings  of  Poetry,  New  York,  1901. 

' '        Handbook  of  Poetics,  Boston,  1892. 

Greenough   and    Kittredge,    Words   and   Their 

Ways  in  English  Speech,  New  York,  1902. 

94 


COLLECTING   MATERIAL 

Specific  references  should  be  as  precise  as  they  can 
be  made,  but  may  be  vague  and  informal  where  the 
source  cannot  be  traced  by  the  reader,  and  the 
important  matter  is  to  point  out  that  the  idea  is  not 
original  with  the  writer.  Such  references  are  usually 
made  by  more  or  less  informal  phrases  in  the  text, 
such  as  the  following: 

I  remember  reading  once  in  a  magazine  .  .  . 

It  was  suggested  to  me  the  other  day  in  con- 
versation that  .  .  . 

Professor  Blank  told  us  the  other  day  in  class 
something  to  the  effect  that  .  .  . 

More  formal  and  exact  references  may  be  given  in 
the  text,  as: 

Professor  G.  H.  Palmer  says  on  this  point  (in 
his  Nature  of  Goodness,  Boston,  1904,  p.  52)  ... 

The  entire  reference,  or  any  part  of  it  which  in- 
terrupts the  flow  of  a  sentence,  may  be  given  in  a 
foot-note.  In  manuscript,  a  foot-note  is  indicated  by 
a  reference  mark,  symbol,  or  figure,  above  the  line  at 
the  word  in  the  sentence  to  which  the  note  belongs, 
and  a  similar  reference  mark  above  the  line  at  the 
beginning  of  the  note  at  the  bottom  of  the  page. 

This  quality  has  been  defined  as  "  .  .  .' 

'  G.  H.  Palmer,  The  Nature  of  Goodness,  Boston,  1904. 
p.  52. 

When  a  reference  is  given  to  the  pages  of  a  book 

the  edition  is  indicated  by  the  place  and  date  of 

7  95 


A  GUIDE  TO  GOOD  ENGLISH 

publication,  and  often  the  name  of  the  pubhsher, 
because  the  paging  might  not  be  the  same  in  other 
editions. 

HOW  TO   FIND   MATERIAL 

''If  we  think  of  it,"  says  Carlyle,  "all  that  a 
University  or  final  highest  School  can  do  for  us,  is 
still  but  what  the  first  School  began  doing, — teach 
us  to  read.  .  .  .  The  place  where  we  are  to  get 
knowledge,  even  theoretic  knowledge,  is  the  Books 
themselves."  Yet  to  many  students  this  place  is  as 
inaccessible  as  a  vein  of  gold  to  a  savage  who  has 
only  a  stick  wherewith  to  open  it,  because  they  do  not 
know  how  to  make  a  collection  of  books,  or  even  a 
single  book,  reveal  its  treasure. 

Learn  first  of  all  the  nature  of  the  catalogue  system 
of  whatever  library  you  are  privileged  to  use.  Very 
likely  you  will  find  confronting  you  as  you  enter  the 
building  a  large  card-catalogue  in  little  drawers  with 
alphabetical  labels.  If  you  look  in  it  for  ''swim- 
ming" and  f.nd  nothing  between  "Swift"  and 
"Swinburne,"  you  are  not  justified  in  assuming  that 
the  library  has  nothing  on  "swimming."  It  is  more 
probable  that  the  catalogue  is  one  of  authors,  and 
not,  as  many  card-catalogues  are,  one  of  authors  and 
subjects  together.  Look  about  for  a  subject  cata- 
logue, and  if  you  do  not  find  it,  ask  an  attendent  about 
it.  He  may  refer  you  to  another  card-catalogue,  or 
to  a  catalogue  in  the  form  of  a  book.  If  you  are 
privileged  to  enter  the  "stacks,"  as  the  floors  de- 
voted to  book-shelves  are  called,  learn  the  system 

96 


COLLECTING   MATERIAL 

of  classification  of  your  library,  so  that  you  can  find 
books  readily  for  yourself. 

Starting  from  the  beginning  with  some  topic  on 
which  you  wish  information,  you  may  consult  first 
the  catalogues  of  the  library,  including  any  indexes 
there  may  be  to  periodical  literature.  These  will 
refer  you  to  books  and  magazines  in  the  library  which 
may  give  you  what  you  want.  You  may  consult 
general  reference  books,  such  as  dictionaries  and 
encyclopedias,  which,  in  addition  to  general  (or 
possibly  more  detailed)  information  on  your  subject, 
will  give  also  a  list  of  authorities.  Look  for  these  in 
the  author  catalogue  to  see  how  many  of  them  are 
in  your  library.  One  of  them  may  be  a  bibliography, 
or  complete  list  of  books  on  the  subject.  Nearly 
every  book  you  find  will  give  the  names  of  others, 
either  scattered  through  the  text,  in  foot-notes,  or  in 
the  form  of  a  list.  When  you  have  found  out  what 
the  library  contains  on  your  subject,  you  should,  if 
it  is  a  possible  thing,  at  least  take  every  book  on  your 
list  down  from  the  shelf,  and  open  it  to  "see  what  it 
looks  like,"  before  you  decide  which  ones  you  are  to 
read,  if  you  cannot  read  them  all.  Never  choose  the 
fiirst  book  on  the  list  merely  because  you  are  terrified 
by  the  prospect  of  so  many. 

Every  well-printed  modern  book  contains  an  index 
which  should  enable  you  to  find  in  it  any  idea  or 
passage  about  which  you  know  anything  at  all.  If 
you  do  not  find  it  at  first,  look  for  it  under  every 
possible  word  or  phrase  which  might  conceal  it; 
if  it  is  not  indexed  under  **  college,"  look  under 
"school,"    "university,"    "education,"    "student," 

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A  GUIDE  TO  GOOD   ENGLISH 

"teaching,"  and  every  other  word  that  might  set 
you  on  its  trail.  If  the  book  has  no  index,  look  at  the 
table  of  contents,  which  may  be  analytical  or  contain 
summarizing  chapter  headings.  There  may  be  sum- 
maries at  the  beginnings  of  chapters,  running- titles 
(at  the  tops  of  right-hand  pages),  marginal  or  cen- 
tered paragraph  headings,  or  something  of  the  sort. 
Failing  all  these,  you  may  practise  the  art  of  "skim- 
ming" the  book,  turning  the  pages  with  an  eye  to  the 
beginnings  and  ends  of  paragraphs,  which  will  enable 
you  to  follow  closely  enough  to  find  what  you  want. 
It  is  safe  to  say  that  there  is  not  a  passage  in 
existing  literature  which  cannot  be  found  promptly 
if  the  seeker  has  in  mind  a  scrap  of  the  wording  or  a 
semblance  of  the  idea  of  it.  AH  recorded  thought 
has  been  indexed  back  and  forth  and  up  and  down, 
and  fairly  riddled  with  cross-references.  There  are 
indexes,  dictionaries,  encyclopedias,  concordances, 
check  lists,  bibhographies,  and  compendiums  of 
every  subject,  from  the  Bible  or  Shakespeare  to  the 
*Hheory  of  tittlebats."  If  you  fail  to  find  anything 
you  want  in  your  library,  the  chances  are  a  hundred 
to  one  that  you  fail,  not  because  what  you  seek  is 
not  there,  but  because  you  do  not  understand  the 
apparatus  that  has  been  made  ready  to  your  hand 
for  that  very  purpose. 

NOTE-TAKING 

/.  Form 

All    notes   on  lectures,  recitations,  reading,  and 
conferences  should  be  taken  on  a  uniform  size  of 

98 


COLLECTING   MATERIAL 

paper,  cards,  or  slips.  Use  either  a  loose-leaf  note- 
book of  a  size  that  can  be  carried  conveniently  with 
other  books  or  in  the  pocket,  or  else  cards  or  slips 
large  enough  to  be  useful  and  small  enough  to  be 
filed  in  drawers  or  trays  in  the  manner  of  a  card- 
catalogue — a  fairly  stiff  bond  paper  cut  four  by  six 
inches  is  good  for  the  purpose. 

Of  the  two  systems,  the  note-book  is  the  easier  for 
the  untrained  student  to  keep  in  orderly  fashion,  and 
is  a  flexible  enough  system  for  one  who  does  his  work 
by  courses  rather  than  by  subjects,  and  who  may  not 
refer  to  his  notes  again  after  he  has  reviewed  them 
for  an  examination.  Each  page  in  the  note-book  as 
it  is  written  should  be  marked  at  the  top  with  the 
name  of  the  course  or  the  subject.  Each  page  of 
lecture  notes  should  be  marked  in  some  such  way  as, 
"Geology  4— Prof.  Shaler— Nov.  23,  1894."  By 
this  system  all  notes  are  taken  in  one  book,  but  in 
such  a  way  that  they  may  be  sorted  afterward  by 
subjects  or  courses  into  separate  binders,  envelopes, 
or  file-cases. 

For  one  who  is  collecting  material  in  various  sub- 
jects from  a  variety  of  sources,  the  card  system 
is  more  useful,  especially  for  material  that  must 
always  be  readily  available.  It  requires  a  little 
more  time  and  attention  to  keep  it  in  order,  but 
this  time  is  more  than  saved  in  referring  to  the  notes. 
Shps  of  the  proper  size — say  four  by  six  inches — may 
be  carried  in  packs  in  the  pocket  or  any  of  the 
convenient  cases  or  covers  made  for  the  purpose. 
The  same  size  should  be  used  for  all  notes,  what- 
ever the  subject  or  the  source  of  the  note,  and  each 

99 


A    GUIDE    TO    GOOD    ENGLISH 

slip  marked  at  the  top  with  the  subject,  and  the 
source  of  the  idea  written  on  it.  Thus,  for  example, 
part  of  a  lecture  on  Poe  might  be  represented  by 
such  cards  as  these : 


Poe — "  Lije  ' 


Lecture,  B.   W.—Jan.  SO,  1900 


Poe — "  Early  Tales  " 


Woodberry  and  Stedman — Introduction 


Poe — "  Fall  of  the  House  of  Usher  " 


Woodberry,  ••Life,"  p.  120 


Superior  to  "Ligeia"  in  unity  of  design  —  artistic 
constrv^tion  called  perfect — note  the  nice  adaptation  of 
parts  to  their  purpose — absolute  harmony  of  total  effect — 
skill  in  bringing  out  sympathy  between  the  house  and 
the  family — there  had  been  no  sv^h  art  before  in  America. 


II.  Lectures 

Inaccuracy  in  note-taking  is  a  common  fault  among 
students  as  well  as  among  reporters.  The  most 
prevalent  faults  in  note-taking  are:  first,  failure  to 
understand  what  the  speaker  says;  second,  failure 
to  discriminate  between  main  and  subordinate  ideas ; 
third,  failure  to  discriminate  between  fact  and 
opinion;  fourth,  illegible  handwriting  or  unintelli- 
gible abbreviations  which  render  the  notes  useless 
after  they  are  made. 

100 


COLLECTING   MATERIAL 

Be  sure  that  you  get  the  speaker's  words.  Many- 
students  habitually  misreport  the  most  explicit 
statements;  they  cannot  even  get  a  correct  note  of 
the  assignment  of  the  next  lesson,  and  on  other  mat- 
ters their  notes  have  about  the  same  relation  to  the 
speaker's  thought  that  black  has  to  white.  When 
you  are  aware  of  a  mistake,  it  is,  of  course,  a  simple 
matter  to  ask  the  speaker  what  he  said,  either  at  the 
time  or  afterward.  Usually  the  trouble  arises  from 
the  unconscious  lapse  of  attention.  For  this  there 
is  no  remedy  but  insistence  on  conscious  effort  of 
attention  until  it  becomes  habitual. 

If  the  reporter  or  student  writes  down  the  first 
sentence  he  hears,  and  follows  it  by  the  sentence  he 
hears  as  he  is  finishing  the  first,  he  is  very  sure  to 
have  a  useless  set  of  notes,  because  his  selection  of 
topics  depends  on  mere  chance.  Subordinate  ideas 
will  be  represented  in  the  notes  without  the  main 
ideas  which  make  them  intelligible.  Learn  to  pick 
out  the  topic  sentences  of  the  speaker's  paragraphs. 
This  is  easier  to  do  with  some  speakers  than  with 
others,  but  the  method,  or  lack  of  it,  of  any  speaker 
can  soon  be  learned  by  a  little  attention  at  the 
start.  Even  if  the  speaker  gives  three  sentences  in 
succession  which  must  be  noted,  he  will  usually 
follow  them  with  subordinate  matter  enough  to  give 
the  reporter  time  to  note  them  if  he  can  remember 
them  long  enough. 

After  writing  a  topic  sentence,  note  under  it 
whatever  subordinate  matter  you  can  while  listening 
for  the  next  topic.  The  simplest  way  to  indicate 
divisions  is  to  write  in  paragraphs,  with  the  topic 

101 


A  GUIDE   TO   GOOD   ENGLISH 

sentences  indented,  one  at  the  beginning  of  each 
paragraph.  If  for  any  reason  the  topic  sentences 
are  not  so  placed,  they  may  be  marked  by  under- 
scoring the  first  few  words,  by  numbers,  or  by  any 
other  convenient  device.  Subordination  is  some- 
times indicated  by  indention,  as  in  a  brief,  but  it 
requires  long  practice  in  rapid  analysis  to  make  the 
successive  indentions  tally  accurately  with  the  sub- 
ordination of  ideas. 

If  you  find  in  your  notes  contradictory  statements 
dogmatically  asserted,  it  is  probable  that  you  have 
failed  to  distinguish  between  theory  and  generally 
accepted  fact,  or  between  theories  of  different  per- 
sons. The  note  ''Hamlet  is  certainly  insane,"  fol- 
lowed by  'Hhe  theory  of  Hamlet's  insanity  is  un- 
tenable," should  probably  be  amended  to  read, 
"Jones  thinks  Hamlet  was  certainly  insane.  .  .  . 
Smith  finds  theory  of  Hamlet's  insanity  untenable." 
Never  note  as  accepted  fact  an  idea  put  forward  by 
the  speaker  as  his  own  theory  or  opinion ;  indicate  it 
by  his  initials,  as,  "M.  thinks  Schlegel  was  not  well 
fitted  for  his  task,"  or  ''Mad  scenes  in  'Lear'  may 
have  had  comic  effect  on  Sh.'s  audience  (B.  W.)" 

Listen  carefully  for  transitions,  connectives,  and 
summaries,  and  note  them  even  if  you  think  you  have 
them  already.  Guide-post  as  well  as  map  may  be 
necessary  for  the  identification  of  an  unfamiliar 
turning. 

Write  legibly  whether  in  short-hand  or  long-hand. 
Time  saved  in  writing  abbreviations  and  symbols  is 
more  than  wasted  if  effort  is  demanded  to  decipher 
them. 

103 


COLLECTING  MATERIAL 

All  references  to  books  and  other  material  should 
be  noted  with  especial  care.  They  are  often  the 
most  valuable  part  of  a  lecture,  and  mean  hours  of 
wasted  time  if  they  are  incorrectly  noted. 

///.  Recitations 

Notes  on  reading  or  recitations  in  foreign  languages 
and  in  English  literature  may  often  be  made  most 
conveniently  in  the  margin  of  the  text.  If  more 
room  is  needed,  the  book  may  be  interleaved  with 
blank  paper  by  a  binder,  or  with  sheets  of  thin 
paper  with  gummed  edges,  made  for  the  purpose. 
These  may  be  inserted  here  and  there  as  space  is 
needed. 

If,  however,  notes  on  lectures  and  reading  are 
made  on  cards  or  slips,  it  is  better  to  take  notes  on 
recitations  in  that  form  also.  Textual  notes  on 
individual  words,  on  phrases,  on  lines,  and  all  other 
matters  that  come  up  in  the  class,  may  be  recorded 
on  cards  and  classified  for  convenient  reference  as  a 
card-dictionary  of  words  or  phrases,  or  under  the 
names  of  the  texts  or  authors  read. 

The  recitations  on  which  it  is  most  difficult  to  take 
notes  are  those  which  take  the  form  of  a  general 
discussion  of  ideas,  or  an  attempt  to  teach  the  student 
to  use  the  facts  he  has  acquired  from  text-books  and 
lectures.  Until  the  student  sees  the  drift  of  the  dis- 
cussion, he  finds  nothing  to  record  but  the  desperate 
guesses  and  impromptu  theories  of  his  fellow-students, 
and  when  the  discussion  has  taken  shape  it  seems 

too  late  to  map  the  course  it  has  followed.    The  way 

103 


A  GUIDE  TO  GOOD  ENGLISH 

to  catch  it  while  it  is  going  on  is  to  note  the  questions 
which  are  raised,  the  data  from  which  answers  may 
be  formed,  and,  if  any  are  developed,  the  answers 
themselves — but  more  important  than  the  answers 
themselves  are  the  data  for  forming  them.  Part  of  a 
recitation  on  the  first  lecture  of  Carlyle's  Heroes  and 
Hero  Worship,  for  example,  might  be  represented  by 
such  a  card  as  this: 


Carlyle,  "Hero  as  Divinity" — Recitation,  Feb.  6,  'I4. 

Whcd  does  Carlyle  mean  by  a  hero? — in  first  sentence  he 
says  merely  "great  men" — leader,  -pattern,  modeler ,  creator , 
{in  what  sense?) — later  speaks  of  him  as  a  thinker — but  the 
process  he  describes  seems  to  be  mostly  imaginative — note 
his  list  of  heroes — What  has  Mohammed  in  common  with 
Dr.  Johnson? — Is  Biirns's  power  imaginative  or  intellec- 
tual?— CromwelVs  ? — Luther's  ? 


IV.  Reading 

Notes  on  reading  may  be  made  for  reference,  for 
use  in  further  study  of  the  subject,  or  by  way  of 
preparation  for  writing  an  exercise  or  essay.  In  any 
case  the  notes  should  be  in  the  same  general  form  as 
notes  on  lectures  or  recitations.  When  reading  keep 
cards  or  slips  in  the  pocket  or  at  hand.  Make  a  note 
of  each  useful  idea  found  in  the  text  or  suggested  by 
it,  being  careful  to  distinguish  scrupulously  between 
the  two. 

VvTien  reading  in  preparation  for  writing,  copy  at 

104 


COLLECTING   MATERIAL 

once,  if  you  can,  in  final  form  (on  the  size  of  paper 
you  intend  to  use)  all  quotations  which  you  think 
you  will  want  to  use  in  the  finished  work,  so  that 
they  may  be  inserted  without  recopying.  Copy  all 
quotations  with  absolute  fidelity  to  the  original  in 
such  matters  as  spelling,  capitalization,  punctuation, 
and  the  like,  and  indicate  all  omissions  of  material 
unnecessary  to  your  purpose  by  the  insertion  of  three 
or  four  dots  or  periods. 

Example:  "That  the  constraining  power  of 
drama  is  just  this  sense  of  urgence 
...  is  but  confirmation  of  this  view." 

If  you  do  not  copy  the  quotation  at  once,  make  an 
exact  reference  to  it  on  a  card  which  may  be  filed 
with  others  or  left  as  a  bookmark  for  the  ready 
finding  of  the  passage.  The  form  of  the  reference 
should  be  such  that  the  card  wherever  found  will 
show  at  once  its  place  in  your  work  or  in  your  files. 


Example: 

"Drama" 

Constraining 

power  of : 

"  The    Psychology 

of 

Beauty," 

E. 

D. 

Puffer 

{Boston, 

1905),  p.  56. 

105 


A  GUIDE  TO  GOOD   ENGLISH 

Pages  on  which  notes  are  taken  may  be  identified 
by  a  brief  topic  and  number  at  the  head ;  as,  ''Drama 
— 3  "or  ''Commission  Government — 5."  A  series  of 
numbered  pages  may  be  expanded  indefinitely  by  the 
use  of  decimal  numbers;  after  page  3,  pages  may  be 
inserted  numbered  3.1,  3.2,  and  so  on;  following 
3.2  may  be  3.21,  3.22,  and  so  forth.  The  final  num- 
bering of  the  pages  of  the  finished  manuscript  is  best 
left  till  the  very  end. 

From  the  outset  train  yourself  to  the  highest 
possible  degree  of  accuracy  and  consistency.  It 
is  better  to  spend  time  in  getting  minor  details 
right  the  first  time  than  in  going  back  to  verify 
them  afterward,  or  to  fail  because  you  have 
them  wrong. 

Learn  as  soon  as  possible  to  use  the  typewriter,  and 
thereafter  write  nothing  with  the  pen  that  you  can 
write  on  the  machine.  Three  months  daily  practice 
will  enable  you  to  write  as  fast  with  it  as  you  can 
with  the  pen.  For  the  time  so  spent  you  will  be 
amply  compensated  afterward  by  the  rapidity  and 
accuracy  of  your  work. 


II 

ORGANIZING   MATERIAL 

I.   THE   EXPOSITORY  OUTLINE 

The  value  of  the  outline  is  not  only  to  preserve 
your  ideas,  but  to  organize  them,  to  correlate  them, 
put  them  in  such  form  that  you  or  any  one  may  see 
exactly  what  the  relationship  of  each  part  is  to  every 
other  part.  To  this  end,  the  outline  is  made  of 
headings  and  subheadings  each  of  which  must  ex- 
press exactly  and  fully  the  idea  it  represents.  It 
must  also  show  by  notation  and  position  exactly 
what  its  correlation  is. 

A  mere  topical  jotting  may  serve  an  immediate 
purpose,  but  it  is  not  a  safe  thing  on  which  to  depend. 
If  you  find  in  your  notes  a  topic  like  "Legislature 
may  remove  judges  'for  cause' — what  the  cause 
actually  is  in  cases  of  recall,"  it  may  suggest  nothing 
to  you  except  that  you  once  had  an  excellent  idea 
which  you  cannot  remember,  or,  if  you  do  remember 
it,  you  have  forgotten  what  it  had  to  do  with  the 
main  point.  Properly  expressed,  however,  it  is 
clear: 

By  the  Legislature,  a  judge  may  constitutionally 

be  removed  "for  cause." 

107 


A  GUIDE  TO  GOOD  ENGLISH 

By  the  people  (recall)  a  judge  would  be  removed 
for  unpopularity. 

Remember  that  the  outline  to  serv^e  its  purpose 
should  be  clear  to  any  one,  not  only  to  the  writer, 
but  to  readers  or  hearers  who  have  only  general 
knowledge  of  the  subject. 

Clearness  and  correlation  are  obtained  together  by 
making  each  main  heading  the  principal  clause  of  a 
sentence,  and  each  subheading  under  it  a  subordinate 
clause  which  will  grammatically  complete  the  sen- 
tence. (See  example,  page  109.)  The  series  of  sub- 
ordinate clauses  any  one  of  which  will  complete 
the  sentence  begun  in  the  main  clause  should  be 
parallel  in  phrasing. 

Headings  of  equal  rank  throughout  the  outline 
should  be  indented  the  same  distance  from  the  margin 
of  the  page.  Each  topic  should  be  indented  about 
half  an  inch  farther  than  the  one  to  which  it  is  sub- 
ordinate, and  all  co-ordinate  topics  should  be  indented 
to  the  same  distance  from  the  margin.  For  topics 
more  than  a  line  in  length  use  the  arrangement  (called 
''hanging  indention  ")  shown  in  the  following  example : 

o.  In  a  number  of  American  cities  modern  lan- 
guage instruction,  mainly  in  German,  has 
already  been  introduced  in  the  primary 
grades  of  the  public  schools,  and  the  pro- 
priety and  value  of  such  instruction  have 
been  warmly  debated  in  the  newspapers 
and  in  local  educational  circles. 

Correlation  is  indicated  not  only  by  indention,  but 
also  by  notation,  the  use  of  letters  and  numbers  to 

108 


ORGANIZING   MATERIAL 

mark  the  heads  and  subheads.  Main  heads  are 
usually  marked  by  Roman  numerals  (or  capital  let- 
ters), secondary  ones  by  capital  letters  (or  Roman 
numerals).  Next  use  Arabic  numerals,  small  let- 
ters, letters  and  figures  in  parentheses,  a',  a",  1',  1", 
Greek  letters,  etc.  It  makes  no  difference  what  sys- 
tem of  notation  you  use,  but  it  is  important  that 
you  keep  consistently  to  a  single  system  throughout 
your  outline.  Do  not  use  the  same  figure  or  letter 
for  sets  of  headings  of  different  rank;  it  is  certain  to 
lead  to  confusion. 


Exam-ple: 

I  Elizabethan  stage  conditions  affect  the  drama  of 
the  period,  in  that 
A  They  give  greater  freedom  and  variety, 
because 

1  The  dramatist  is  not  limited  as  to  the 
number  of  scenes  he  may  use,  for 
a  It  was  possible  to  have  many 
scenes    indefinitely    local- 
ized, as 

1  "A  Street." 

2  "A  Garden  Outside  the 

City." 
6  Intervals  between  scenes  were 
not  long,  for 

1  There  was  no  heavy 
scenery  to  be  moved. 
B  They  lead  to  looseness  of  effect  and  concise 
stage  construction: 

1  The  great  number  of  scenes  used  de- 
stroyed unity  of  construction, 
a  As  in  Antony  and  Cleopatra. 
109 


A  GUIDE  TO  GOOD  ENGLISH 

2  An  act  or  a  play  could  not  end  with 
a  climax,  for 
a  There  was  no  front  curtain. 
C  Absence  of  scenery  gives  us  some  of  the 
best  poetry  in  the  Elizabethan  drama,  for 
1  Dramatists  resorted  to  verbal  de- 
scription. 

Note  that  the  sentence  begun  in  I  is  finished  in 
either  A,  B,  or  C;  that  the  sentence  begun  in  B  is 
finished  in  either  1  or  2;  that  the  sentence  begun  in 
1  is  finished  in  either  a  or  h,  etc. 

Double  notation  always  indicates  a  fault  in  cor^ 
relation,  usually  incomplete  analysis. 

Example  (incorrect): 

B,  1.  Elizabethan  drama  lost  unity  of  effect. 
2.  Acts   and   plays   could   not   end   on    a 
climax. 

By  notation,  1  is  subordinate  to  B;  therefore  the 
heading  cannot  be  both  1  and  B,  since  it  cannot  be 
subordinate  to  itself.  Usually  the  topic  so  numbered 
proves  to  be  the  subordinate  one,  and  the  main  one 
is  not  expressed.  (See  B  in  example  above  for  cor- 
rect form.) 

The  fact  of  subordination  of  one  topic  to  another, 
and  its  exact  degree,  is  indicated  by  the  notation  and 
indention  of  the  outline.  The  nature  of  the  relation- 
ship between  the  headings  is  indicated  by  their 
wording.  Words  which  indicate  the  relationship 
of  ideas  are  called  connectives.  In  exposition  the 
relationship  between  the  ideas  may  be  any  which  the 

110 


ORGANIZING   MATERIAL 

language  is  capable  of  expressing.    A  classified  list 
of  useful  connectives  may  be  found  on  pages  47,  48. 

Note  that  and  shows  nothing  as  to  the  relationship 
of  the  ideas  it  joins  except  that  they  are  co-ordinate, 
equal  in  rank  and  value.  For  this  reason  it  is  seldom 
useful  in  outlines.     (See  page  46.) 

It  is  often  the  case  that  the  last  part  of  your  work 
to  be  outlined  or  written  is  the  part  that  comes  to  the 
reader  first — the  introduction.  Often,  too,  it  is  the 
hardest  part  of  your  work,  because  you  are  not 
clearly  conscious  of  its  purpose;  you  cannot  do  it 
because  you  do  not  know  what  you  are  trying  to 
do.  Ordinarily  the  purpose  of  the  introduction  to  a 
piece  of  exposition  is  to  arouse  interest  and  to  turn 
the  mind  of  the  reader  or  hearer  from  some  other 
channel  into  the  one  you  are  to  follow. 

''Beginning  distantly  and  far  away"  with  prefa- 
tory platitudes  and  vague  generalities  which  do  not 
even  glitter,  or  beginning  abruptly  as  with  a  slap  in 
the  face,  will  not  serve  the  purpose.  If  the  writing 
of  generalities  is  helpful  to  you  by  way  of  working 
into  your  subject,  write  them,  but  do  not  inflict  them 
on  others.  Find  the  point  at  which  your  work 
really  begins,  and  resolutely  cross  out  everything 
that  goes  before.  If  your  subject  is  a  familiar  one 
to  all,  or  to  all  your  readers,  you  may  step  firmly  and 
quickly  into  it  without  fear  that  they  cannot  follow 
you.  In  general,  if  your  subject  does  not  offer  you 
a  ready  introduction,  you  can  find  one  by  one  of  the 
following  methods,  or  some  combination  of  one  or 
more  of  them. 

1.  Show  the  importance  or  interest  of  yoiu*  subject. 
8  111 


A  GUIDE  TO  GOOD  ENGLISH 

2.  Show  its  relationship  with  some  matter  of 
universal  interest. 

3.  Name  yom-  subject  and  define  it. 

4.  Mention  the  most  interesting  fact  or  important 
result  to  which  your  subject  leads. 

5.  Give  a  concrete  instance,  by  narration  or  de- 
scription, of  the  conditions  you  are  to  discuss. 

6.  Tell  some  anecdote  or  story  which  is  entirely 
apropos.  (Do  not  try  this  unless  you  have  something 
especially  apt.  Misplaced  humor  at  the  outset  ia 
particularly  difficult  to  recover  from.) 

II.   THE   ARGUMENTATIVE   OUTLINE  OR  BRIEF 

In  argument  you  convince  your  opponent  by  sup- 
porting your  proposition  with  proof,  that  proof  with 
further  proof,  and  continuing  the  process  until  the 
case  rests  on  a  proposition  which  is  not  subject  to  a 
reasonable  doubt.  A  is  6  because  c  is  d;  c'lsd  because 
e  is  /;  and  that  e  is  /  is  a  matter  of  common  knowl- 
edge. Each  bit  of  proof  becomes  a  fresh  proposition 
until  conunon  sense  calls  a  halt.  It  follows  that  the 
only  relationship  between  heading  and  subheading 
in  the  brief  is  that  between  proposition  and  proof. 
The  apparent  necessity  for  any  other  connective  than 
for  or  because  indicates  faulty  correlation. 

The  first  step  in  any  argument,  formal  or  informal, 
written  or  oral,  is  to  find  out  exactly  what  it  is  you 
are  trying  to  prove.  Be  sure  that  you  have  a  propo- 
sition and  not  merely  a  term.  ''The  tariff"  or 
''woman  suffrage"  may  be  the  colloquial  names  of 

highly  debatable  questions,  but  they  are  not  debat- 

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ORGANIZING  MATERIAL 

able  until  they  are  phrased  as  something  more  than 
terms.  As  propositions,  they  must  be  phrased  in 
the  form  of  definite  assertions  or  questions;  as,  "Is 
the  present  tariff  the  best  one  for  the  United  States?" 
or,  **  Granting  the  suffrage  to  women  in  the  United 
States  would  purify  municipal  politics,"  or  any  of  a 
hundred  others.  You  cannot  argue  the  term  x,  but 
you  can  argue  the  question  ''Isxyf  or  the  assertion 
"a;  is  ?/"  or  ''Resolved,  that  x  is  y." 

The  second  step  is  the  definition  of  terms.  What 
do  you  mean  by  ''the  best  tariff,"  by  "purifying," 
by ' '  municipal  politics ' '  ?  The  analysis  by  which  you 
arrive  at  your  definitions  brings  you  to  your  "special 
issues,"  the  series  of  propositions  which  you  must 
prove  in  order  to  prove  your  main  proposition.  The 
process  may  be  illustrated  symbolically. 

Proposition:     x  is  y. 
Definition:       y  is  a,  b,  and  c. 

If,  then,  X  is  a,  h,  and  c,  x  is  y. 
Special  issue:  The  question  then  becomes,  is 
X  a,  b,  and  c? 

Your  definition  of  y  gives  you  three  propositions 
which  will  logically  establish  your  main  proposition 
if  you  can  prove  them.  Now  you  have  no  further 
concern  with  the  main  proposition,  but  turn  wholly 
to  the  subordinate  one  x  is  a.  Marshal  your  proof 
for  this  until  common  sense  or  your  opponent  tells 
you  you  have  proved  it.  Then  turn  to  x  is  b;  then 
to  X  is  c. 

The  structure  of  the  entire  brief  may  be  symboli- 
cally shown  as  follows: 

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A  GUIDE  TO   GOOD  ENGLISH 
Proposition:     Resolved,  that  x  is  y. 

Introduction 

Definition:        y  is  a,  b,  and  c. 

If  X  is  a,  b,  and  c,  x  is  ?/. 
Special  issiLe:  The    question   then    becomes,   is 
X  o,  6,  and  cf 

Brief  Proper 

A.  a:  is  a  for 

I for 

o for 

1 

2 

b for 

1 

B.  X  is  6  for 

I etc. 

C.  X  is  c  for 

I etc. 

Conclusion 

Since,  then,  x  is  a,  b,  and  c,  and  since  it  was 
admitted  at  the  outset  that  y  is  a,  b,  and  c,  x  is  y. 

The  Three  Parts  of  the  Brief 

1.  The  Introduction  is  an  expository  outline,  the 
main  purpose  of  which  is  the  analysis  and  definition 
which  leads  to  the  determination  of  the  special  issue. 
It  is  the  preliminary  agreement  between  the  two 
parties  to  the  argument  as  to  exactly  what  they  are 
and  are  not  to  discuss.  It  must  contain  no  debatable 
matter;  everything  in  it  must  be  agreed  to  by  both 

114 


ORGANIZING   MATERIAL 

sides.  If  there  is  any  point  necessary  to  your  case 
to  which  your  opponent  does  not  agree  it  must  be 
incorporated  in  your  proposition  or  special  issue  and 
proved  in  the  brief  proper.  For  this  reason  it  is  best 
not  to  use  in  the  introduction  the  argumentative  con- 
nectives/or and  because,  lest  you  find  yourself  fighting 
before  you  have  reached  the  battle-ground.  The  in- 
troduction ordinarily  contains  the  following  divisions : 

a.  The  origin  of  the  question.  This  serves  the  pur- 
poses of  the  introduction  mentioned  under  exposi- 
tion, and  forestalls  any  such  objection  to  the  subject 
as  is  heard  in  the  colloquial  retorts,  ''Who  said  it 
wasn't?"  or  ''Who  cares  if  it  is?" 

6.  The  exclusion  of  matter  agreed  upon  hy  both  sides 
as  irrelevant.  This  is  often  necessary  to  save  arguing 
at  cross  purposes.  The  introduction  to  a  brief  on  the 
advisability  of  electing  United  States  senators  by 
direct  popular  vote  might,  for  example,  contain  some 
such  provision  as,  "It  is  agreed  that  the  constitu- 
tionality of  electing  senators  by  popular  vote  need 
not  be  discussed." 

c.  Facts  admitted  by  both  sides  on  which  evidence  rests. 
These  are  like  the  axioms  of  geometry  or  the  rules  of  a 
game ;  they  must  be  explicitly  understood  beforehand. 

d.  Definitions  of  terms. 

e.  The  special  issue.  This  is  drawn,  as  has  been 
shown,  from  the  definitions,  or  from  the  definitions  or 
axioms  together. 

2.  The  Brief  Proper  is  the  real  battle-ground,  and 
contains  all  the  argument.  As  has  been  said,  it 
takes  up  the  special  issues  one  by  one,  supporting 
them  by  whatever  evidence  is  necessary  to  establish 

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A  GUIDE   TO   GOOD  ENGLISH 

them.  Each  item  of  evidence  becomes  in  turn  a 
fresh  proposition  to  be  supported  by  further  evidence 
until  shown  to  rest  on  an  obvious  truth  or  something 
your  opponent  has  admitted. 

3.  The  Conclusion  recalls  the  bearing  of  the  special 
issues,  now  proved,  on  the  main  proposition  as  ex- 
pressed in  the  introduction.  It  mentions  the  fact 
that  the  special  issues  have  now  been  proved,  and 
that  your  opponent  admitted  that  to  prove  them 
was  to  prove  the  main  proposition.  In  one  form  or 
another  it  says;  "I  have  proved,  then,  that  x  is  a, 
b,  and  c.  You  admitted  at  the  start  that  y  is  a,  h, 
and  c.     You  must  admit,  then,  that  a:  is  ?/." 

Argumentation  does  not  change  the  nature  of 
things ;  it  attempts  merely  to  find  out  what  they  are. 
It  is  a  process  of  analysis  by  which  we  arrive  at  the 
truth.  The  proposition  is  in  the  introduction  un- 
twisted like  a  rope ;  in  the  brief  proper  each  strand  is 
examined  throughout  its  length;  in  the  conclusion 
the  rope  is  restored  to  its  original  form.  Nothing 
is  changed  but  our  knowledge  of  its  composition. 
The  relation  of  this  process  to  the  parts  of  the  brief 
may  be  shown  by  such  a  diagram  as  this : 


Introduction 

Brief  Proper 
X  is  a 

Conclusion 

— L^vw 

2  13  y  if  it  is  ^^^  h     \ 

a;  is  6 

I  and  6^      x  \s  y 

^\i 

X  is  c 

y^ 

116 


ORGANIZING  MATERIAL 

If  in  arranging  your  material  in  the  brief  proper 
you  come  to  a  relationship  which  can  only  be  ex- 
pressed by  ''hence"  or  ''therefore"  as  a  connective, 
you  may  know  certainly  that  you  have  reversed  the 
true  order,  and  placed  the  proof  before  the  proposi- 
tion. This  is  a  possible  order  in  the  written  or 
spoken  argument,  but  it  does  not  serve  the  purpose 
of  the  brief. 

Example  (incorrect): 

A.  The  Elizabethan  stage  had  no  front  curtain, 
hence 

1.  An  act  or  play  could  not  end  on  a 
climax. 

The  remedy  is  to  reverse  the  order. 

Example: 

A.  The  Elizabethan  dramatist  could  not  end 
an  act  or  a  play  on  a  climax,  for 
The  stage  had  no  front  curtain. 

Be  sure  that  your  analysis  in  search  of  evidence 
does  not  carry  you  into  the  realm  of  mere  explanation. 

Example  (incorrect): 

A.  Most  of  the  income  of  the  town  goes  to  road 
improvement,  for 

1.  Most  of  the  taxpayers  "work  out" 
their  taxes,  for 
a.  They  have  very  little  cash,  for 
(1)  They  grow  very  little  be- 
yond what  they  con- 
sume themselves. 
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A  GUIDE  TO  GOOD  ENGLISH 

Note  that  a  tells  us  the  reason  why  the  farmers 
work  out  their  taxes,  but  not  the  reason  why  we 
should  believe  that  they  do.  To  supply  a  possible 
motive  for  an  act  is  to  supply  the  weakest  sort  of 
argument  for  believing  that  the  act  has  been  per- 
formed. The  reason  why  we  believe  it  would  prob- 
ably be  more  as  follows: 

Example:  a.  The  town  accounts  for  last  year 
show  that  62  per  cent,  of  the  town 
tax  was  paid  in  labor  on  the  roads. 


Part   III 


PROSODY    AND    GRAMMAR 


!    , 


PROSODY 

Prosody  is  the  science  of  versification,  the  mechan- 
ics of  poetry,  the  facts  which  have  to  do  with  its  form. 

Poetry  has  never  been  defined  scientifically.  The 
term  is  commonly  apphed  to  language  which  is 
rhythmic,  metrical,  emotional,  imaginative — Carlyle 
calls  it  musical  speech. 

Verse  as  distinguished  from  poetry  is  language 
which  is  metrical  or  rhythmic,  but  not  necessarily 
emotional  or  imaginative.  Poetry  is  verse,  but 
verse  need  not  be  poetry. 

Meter  is  the  measure  of  verse.  It  is  the  arrange- 
ment of  language  in  even  time-divisions  marked  off 
in  general  by  accented  syllables.^ 

Rhythm  is  an  arrangement  like  that  of  meter  but 
less  regular;  the  divisions  are  not  so  even  in  length 
nor  so  regular  in  recurrence.  Metrical  language  is 
rhythmic,  but  rhythmic  language  need  not  be  met- 
rical. 

1  Or  by  time-beats  which  fall  where  there  are  no  syllables.  In  the 
following  lines  the  time-beats  which  mark  the  divisions  are  indicated. 

/  III 

"Where  have  you  been  this  while  away, 

/  II  I 

Johnny,  Johnny?" 

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A   GUIDE   TO   GOOD  ENGLISH 

Scansion  is  any  metrical  reading;  any  reading 
which  makes  the  time -parts  of  the  verse  even 
in  length.  Dismemberment  of  words  and  over- 
emphasis on  special  syllables  are  not  necessary 
parts  of  the  process. 

The  foot  is  the  rhythmic  unit  of  the  verse.  The 
term  is  sometimes  applied  to  the  time-part  of  the 
meter,  but  more  often  to  the  small  group  of  syl- 
lables of  which  usually  one  is  accented  and  one 
or  more  unaccented,  the  order  of  the  accented 
and  unaccented  syllables  in  the  group  determining 
the  type  of  the  foot  and  the  movement  of  the 
verse. 

A  line  is  any  number  of  feet  or  syllables  which  the 
poet  chooses  to  set  off  from  others. 

A  verse  is  a  line.  The  use  of  the  term  to  mean 
stanza  is  colloquial. 

A  stanza  is  an  arrangement  of  lines  more  or 
less  regular,  sometimes  corresponding  to  the  prose 
paragraph  as  a  division  of  thought,  more  often  ar- 
ranged in  a  preconceived  form  with  little  regard  to 
divisions  of  thought. 

The  canto  is  a  larger  division  corresponding  to  the 
chapter  in  prose.  It  may  contain  any  number  of 
lines  or  stanzas.  Its  length  is  not  a  matter  of  pre- 
conceived form,  but  is  a  logical  division  of  the 
material  or  thought. 

Accent  means  merely  emphasis,  or  stress.  The 
verse-writer  must  so  arrange  his  words  that  when 
they  are  normally  pronounced  the  time  divisions  of 
the  verse  will  be  marked  off  by  accented  syllables. 
The  less  the  correspondence  is  between  these  accents 

122 


PROSODY 

and  the  time-beats  of  the  verse,  the  less  metrical  is  the 
verse. 

Rhyme  is  identity  of  sound  in  one  or  more  syllables 
of  two  or  more  words. 

Internal  rhyme  is  rhyme  between  words  in  the  line ; 
as,  ''Still  may  I  heo,r  with  equal  ear^ 

Alliteration  is  identity  of  consonant  sound  at  the 
beginnings  of  words;  as,  "During  the  whole  of  a  dull, 
dark,  and  soundless  day,"  and,  "The  /lorn  of  the 
/lunter  is  /leard  on  the  /lill." 

A  cesura  is  a  pause  within  the  line. 

KINDS    OF    FEET 

Groups  of  syllables  are  named  according  to  the 
arrangement  within  them  of  accented  and  unaccented 
syllables.^ 

The  iamb  or  iambus  has  an  unaccented  syllable 
followed  by  an  accented  syllable. 


"Now  fades  |  the  glim|mering  land  [scape  on  [  the 

sight." 

The  trochee  has  also  two  syllables;   it  has  the 
accent  on  the  first  syllable. 


"When  the  ]  evening  |  sun  is  j  red." 

^  The  sjonbols  used  here  to  indicate  meter  are  ^  to  mark  an 
unaccented  syllable,  —  to  mark  an  accented  syllable,  and  |  to  mark 
the  division  into  feet. 

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A  GUIDE  TO  GOOD  ENGLISH 

The  dactyl  has  three  syllables,  of  which  the  first 
syllable  is  the  only  one  accented. 


X    X        X    X 


"Land  of  the  |  heroes  who  |  won  us  a  |  heritage." 

The  anapest  has  three  syllables,  of  which  the  last 
is  the  only  one  accented. 

X         X      X         X       X  X        X 

"But  the  lost  I  bride  of  Neth|erby  ne'er  [  did 
X      — 
they  see." 

The  spondee,  consisting  of  two  accented  syllables, 
occurs  only  as  a  variant  in  lines  composed  of  other 
types. 

X      X  X  X  X 

"Sing  I  the  |  arms  and  the  |  man  who  \  first  from 

X  

the  I  shores,"  etc. 

Metrists  sometimes  attempt  to  lay  down  rules  to 
define  the  possibilities  of  substitution  of  one  of  these 
groups  in  a  line  ostensibly  made  up  of  groups  of 
another  type.  We  are  told,  for  example,  that  in 
certain  feet  of  a  dactylic  hexameter  line  a  spondee 
may  be  "substituted"  for  a  dactyl;  or  in  certain  feet 
of  an  iambic  pentameter  line  an  anapest  may  be 
substituted  for  an  iamb.  An  examination  of  the 
facts,  however,  shows  that  the  poet  may  go  as  far 
as  he  likes  in  this  direction  provided  he  writes  lines 
which  the  ordinary  reader  will  naturally  read  as  the 

124 


PROSODY 

poet  wishes  them  to  sound — will  read  them  metri- 
cally, and  harmoniously  with  the  other  Unes.  He  may 
not  make  his  line  so  irregular  that  it  ceases  to  be 
metrical  at  all  and  becomes  prose.  Nor  may  he, 
ordinarily,  ''substitute"  so  many  feet  that  the  line 
becomes  of  another  meter  from  the  rest;  though  this 
has  been  done  without  reproach  in  the  case  of  the 
trochaic  line 

—    X  —   X  —   X  X        —      X 

"Thea,  |  Thea,  |  Thea,  |  where  is  [  Saturn?" 

in  a  poem  otherwise  iambic.  Iamb  and  trochee  are 
always  harmonious,  because  the  distinction  between 
them  cannot  be  made  unless  the  reader  remembers 
the  arbitrary  point  from  which  he  begins  his  count  of 
the  syllables,  and  the  same  is  true  of  dactyl  and 
anapest. 

KINDS   OF   LINES 

Lines  are  commonly  named  with  two  words,  the 
first  of  which  indicates  the  character  of  the  groups  of 
which  the  line  is  composed,  and  the  second,  the 
number  of  beats  in  the  line.     Thus  the  line  in 


"Live  thy  |  life. 
Young  and  |  old, 

X  — 

Like  yon  |  oak," 


would  be  trochaic  dimeter,  dimeter  meaning  "two- 
measure."     The  number  of  possible  kinds  of  line  is 

125 


A  GUIDE   TO   GOOD  ENGLISH 

theoretically  infinite,  and  practically  very  large,  but 
the  commonest  of  them  are  three-,  four-,  and  five- 
beat  measures  composed  of  the  types  of  groups  al- 
ready described.  A  three-beat  measure  is  called 
trimeter;  a  four-beat  measure,  tetrameter;  and  a 
five-beat  measure,  pentameter.  Hexameter,  or  six- 
beat  measure,  occurs  often,  but  has  not  proved  so 
useful  in  English  as  the  others. 

The  last  beat  of  any  line  is  likely  to  fall  on  a  single 
accented  syllable  irrespective  of  the  character  of  the 
previous  groups  of  syllables  in  the  line.  A  line  ending 
in  an  unaccented  syllable  is  said  to  have  a  feminine 
ending. 

Examples  of  various  types  of  lines  have  already 
been  given,  and  others  will  be  found  among  the 
examples  of  stanzas  following.  Some  of  them  may 
be  classified  by  name  as  follows : 

IAMBIC 


Trimeter:      "'He  comleth  not,'  |  she  said" 

X        —    X        X         X 

Tetrameter:  "And  ev|er  when  \  the  moon  |  was 


low" 


X— 


X      — 


Pentameter:  "The  qualjity  |  of  merlcy  is  |  not 

strained" 

X    X      X      X   — 

Hexameter:  "For  loss  |  of  thou|sand  lives  j  to  die  | 
X    —         X  — 


at  her  [  desire" 
126 


PROSODY 

TROCHAIC 


Dimeter:       "While  I  |  live" 

X  —  X  

Trimeter:      "Never  |  any  |  more" 

X       X      —    X        

Tetrameter:  "Need  I  |  hope  to  |  see  his  |  face" 

X  X     X  —   X 

Pentameter:  "Set  your  |  love  be|fore  me  |  as  a 
shield" 


Hexameter:  "Never  |  dreamed,  though  |  right 

X  X  X 

were  |  worsted,  |  wrong  would  | 

X 

triumph"' 


DACTYLIC 


X    X 


Dimeter:       "Wake  thy  wild  |  voice  anew" 


X  X 


Trimeter:      "Swords  on  their  [  shields  clashed 

X    X        X 

tri|umphantly" 

X      X     X       X  X  

Tetrameter:  "The  sun  was  a  |  shadow  with  |  thee 
to  the  I  fore  " 

X  X 


Pentameter:  "Saw  his  calm  |  eyes  as  he  |  rode  on 

X  X        X  X 

his  1  way  to  the  |  battle" 
Hexameter:  "Truly,  1 1  thank  you  for  |  this;  how| 

X  X  X        X 

kind  you  have  |  been  to  me  | 

always!" 
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A  GUIDE  TO  GOOD  ENGLISH 


Dimeter: 
Trimeter: 


ANAPESTIC 
X     X  X    X   

"As  I  ride,  |  as  I  ride" 

X         X         X  X 


"Having  faith   |  that  thy  face  I   I 

X  

should  see 

X       X         X  X         X 

Tetrameter:  "Fleeing  swift  1  from  the  preslence 

X      X  X  

of  him  I  he  had  cursed" 

X       X  X         X       

Pentameter:  "Brightly  gleamed  |  on  the  face  I 

X        X       X  X         

of  the  sea   |    whence  the  tern  I 

X         X      

pest  had  fled" 

Practice  of  Versification 

The  best  way  to  gain  a  comprehension  of  any 
meter  is  to  practise  writing  it.  A  practical  under- 
standing of  our  commonest  meter,  iambic  pentam- 
eter, may  be  quickly  gained  by  such  exercises  as  the 
following: 

1.  Divide  the  following  passage  into  iambic  pen- 
tameter lines: 

"  Have  I  not  hideous  death  within  my  view,  re- 
taining but  a  quantity  of  life,  which  bleeds  away, 
even  as  a  form  of  wax  resolveth  from  his  figure 
'gainst  the  fire?  What  in  the  world  should  make 
me  now  deceive,  since  I  must  lose  the  use  of  all 
deceit?  Why  should  I  then  be  false,  since  it  is 
true  that  I  must  die  here,  and  live  hence  by 
truth?     I  say  again.  If  Lewis  do  win  the  day,  he 

128 


PROSODY 

is  forsworn  if  e'er  those  eyes  of  yours  behold 
another  day  break  in  the  east;  but  even  this 
night,  whose  black  contagious  breath  already 
smokes  about  the  burning  crest  of  the  old, 
feeble,  and  day-wearied  sun,  even  this  ill  night, 
your  breathing  shall  expire,  paying  the  fine  of 
rated  treachery  even  with  the  treacherous  fine 
of  all  your  lives,  if  Lewis  by  your  assistance 
win  the  day." — Shakespeare,  King  John,  Act  V., 
Scene  IV. 

2.  Turn  the  following  passage  into  blank  verse, 
making  any  necessary  changes  in  the  wording: 

"Beneath,  the  unsulUed  sea  drew  in  deep 
breathing,  to  and  fro,  its  eddies  of  green  wave. 
Deep-hearted,  majestic,  terrible  as  the  sea, — the 
men  of  Venice  moved  in  sway  of  power  and  war; 
pure  as  her  pillars  of  alabaster,  stood  her 
mothers  and  maidens;  from  foot  to  brow,  all 
noble,  walked  her  knights;  the  low  bronzed 
gleaming  of  sea-rusted  armour  shot  angrily  under 
their  blood-red  mantle-folds.  Fearless,  faithful, 
patient,  impenetrable,  implacable — every  word 
a  fate — sate  her  senate.  In  hope  and  honour, 
lulled  by  flowing  of  wave  around  their  isles  of 
sacred  sand,  each  with  his  name  written  and  the 
cross  graven  by  his  side,  lay  her  dead." — Ruskin, 
Modern  Painters,  Vol.  V.,  Part  IX.,  Chap.  IX. 

3.  Write  ten  lines  of  blank  iambic  pentameter 

verse  on  any  subject  you  choose — a  passage  from  any 

newspaper,  magazine,  or  book  may  supply  you  with 

subject  matter.     Let  it  be  sense  or  nonsense,  so  long 

as  it  is  metrical. 

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KINDS    OF    STANZAS 

The  Couplet 

The  simplest  form  of  stanza  is  the  couplet.  It 
consists  of  two  similar  lines  rhyming  together.  The 
lines  may  be  of  any  character  or  length. 

"Honey  flowers  to  the  honeycomb 
And  the  honey-bee's  from  home." 

The  "Heroic  Couplet"  is  composed  of  iambic 
pentameter  lines. 

"True  wit  is  Nature  to  advantage  dressed, 
What  oft  has  been,  but  ne'er  so  well  expressed." 

Three-Line  Stanzas 

Three-line  stanzas  are  often  made  of  three  lines 
rhyming  together.  A  more  interesting  one  some- 
times used  in  English  is  the  terza  rima  of  Dante,  a 
series  of  three-line  stanzas  with  interwoven  rhyme, 
a  b  a — h  c  b — c  d  c,  and  so  on.  Shelley  used  it  in  his 
"Ode  to  the  West  Wind." 

"O  wild  West  Wind,  thou  breath  of  Autumn's 

being, 

Thou  from  whose  unseen  presence  the  leaves 

dead 

Are  driven  like  ghosts  from  an  enchanter  fleeing, 

Yellow  and  black  and  pale  and  hectic  red. 

Pestilence-stricken  multitudes!    O  thou 

Who  chariotest  to  their  dark  wintry  bed " 

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PROSODY 

The  Quatrain 

Perhaps  the  commonest  form  of  stanza  is  the  four- 
line  stanza  or  quatrain.  The  lines  may  be  of  any 
character  and  rhyme  according  to  any  possible 
scheme,  or  not  rhyme  at  all.  The  lines  may  contain 
three  beats,  as  in 

"0  wat,  wat, 

O  wat  and  weary. 
Sleep  can  I  get  nane 

For  thinkin'  o'  my  dearie!" 

A  common  hymn  stanza  is  called  short  meter. 

"Ye  servants  of  the  Lord, 
Each  in  his  office  wait, 
Observant  of  His  heavenly  word, 
And  watchful  at  His  gate." 

Long  meter  in  hymns  consists  of  four-foot  iambic 
lines. 

"O  timely  happy,  timely  wise. 
Hearts  that  with  rising  morn  arise! 
Eyes  that  the  beam  celestial  view, 
Which  ever  more  makes  all  things  new!" 

Ballad   meter   has   alternate   four-   and   three-foot 
iambic  lines. 

"Late,  late  yestere'en  I  saw  the  new  moon 

Wi'  the  auld  moon  in  her  arm; 

And  I  fear,  I  fear,  my  dear  master, 

That  we  shall  come  to  harm." 
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The  '"Elegiac  Stanza"  has  four  iambic  pentameter 
lines  rhyming  alternately. 

"Full  many  a  gem  of  purest  ray  serene 

The  dark,  unfathomable  caves  of  ocean  bear; 
Full  many  a  flower  is  born  to  blush  unseen, 
And  waste  its  sweetness  on  the  desert  air." 

Tennyson  used  and  made  his  own,  in  "In  Memo- 
riam,"  a  quatrain  rhyming  abba: 

"I  hold  it  true,  whate'er  befall; 
I  feel  it,  when  I  sorrow  most; 
'Tis  better  to  have  loved  and  lost 
Than  never  to  have  loved  at  all." 

The  quatrain  of  Fitzgerald,  in  his  translation  of 
the  "Rubaiyat,"  has  still  another  rhyme  scheme. 

''When  you  and  I  behind  the  veil  have  passed, 
Oh  but  the  long,  long  time  the  world  shall  last. 

Which  of  our  coming  and  departure  heeds 
As  the  Seven  Seas  should  heed  a  pebble  cast." 

Five-Line  Stanzas 

Five-line  stanzas  are  less  common,  but  they  occur 
with  every  possible  variation  in  length  of  line  and 
rhyme  scheme. 

"The  Pilgrim  said:   'Where  is  your  house? 

I'll  rest  there,  with  your  will.' 

'You've  but  to  climb  these  blackened  boughs. 

And  you'll  see  it  over  the  hill. 

For  it  burns  still.'" 
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PROSODY 

Six-Line  Stanzas 

Six-line  stanzas  are  less  rare,  especially  in  the 
following  form: 

"  Her  robe,  ungirt  from  clasp  to  hem, 
No  wrought  flowers  did  adorn, 

But  a  white  rose  of  Mary's  gift. 
For  service  meetly  worn; 

Her  hair  that  lay  along  her  back 
Was  yellow  like  ripe  corn." 

It  was  a  six-line  stanza  with  two  short  lines  which 
Burns  used  so  characteristically  that  we  think  of  it 
as  his. 

"Wee,  modest,  crimson-tipped  flower, 
Thou's  met  me  in  an  evil  hour; 
For  I  maun  crush  amang  the  stour 

Thy  slender  stem: 
To  spare  thee  now  is  past  my  power, 

Thou  bonnie  gem." 

Common  Forms  of  Longer  Stanzas 

The  commonest  seven-line  stanza  is  called  Rime 
Royal  or  Chaucerian,  from  its  use  by  James  I.  of 
Scotland  and  Chaucer.     It  rhymes  ab  abb  cc. 

"But  in  effect,  and  shortly  for  to  say. 
This  Diomed,  all  freshly  new  again 

Gan  to  press  on,  and  fast  her  mercy  pray; 
And  after  this,  the  truth  for  to  make  plain, 
Her  glove  he  took,  of  which  he  was  full  fain, 

And  finally,  when  it  was  waxen  eve, 

And  all  was  well,  he  rose  and  took  his  leave." 

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To  this  stanza  Chaucer  added  a  line  in  one  of  his 
tales,  making  the  rhyme  ababbcbc. 

"Zenobia  of  Palmyra  was  the  Queen, 

As  write  the  Persians  of  her  nobleness, 
In  arms  so  worthy  was  she  and  so  keen. 

That  no  wight  passed  her  in  hardiness, 
Nor  lineage,  nor  other  gentleness. 

Of  the  Kings'  blood  of  Persia  she  descended; 
I  do  not  say  that  she  had  most  fairness, 

But  of  her  shape  she  might  not  be  amended." 

To  this  Spenser  later  added  another  line,  making  the 
widely  used  stanza  now  called  Spenserian. 

"Nought  is  on  earth  more  sacred  or  divine, 
That  gods  and  men  do  equally  adore, 
Than  this  same  virtue  that  doth  right  define: 
For  th'  heavens  themselves,  whence  mortal 

men  implore 
Right  in  their  wrongs,  are  ruled  by  right- 
eous lore 
Of  highest  Jove,  who  doth  true  justice  deal 

To  his  inferior  gods,  and  evermore 
Therewith  contains  his  heavenly  commonweal: 
The  skill  whereof  to  Princes'  hearts  he  doth 
reveal." 

Note  that  in  this  stanza  the  last  line  contains  six 
iambic  feet,  instead  of  five  as  do  the  others.  It  is 
called  an  Alexandrine. 

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PROSODY 

Ottava  Rima  is  an  eight-line  stanza  rh3miing 
ahab  abcc. 

"Why  were  they  proud?    Because  their  marble 
founts 
Gushed  with  more  pride  than  do  a  wretch's 
tears? — 
Why  were  they  proud?    Because  fair  orange 
mounts 
Were  of  more  soft  ascent  than  lazar  stairs? — 
Why    were    they    proud?    Because    red-Uned 
accounts 
Were    richer    than    the    songs    of    Grecian 
years? — 
Why  were  the}'  proud?  again  we  ask  aloud, 
Why   in   the  name   of   glory   were   they 
proud?" 

The  Sonnet 

The  sonnet  is  not  a  stanza,  but  a  complete  poem  in 
itself,  though  sometimes  in  a  "sonnet  sequence"  a 
series  of  more  or  less  closely  related  sonnets  may 
carry  on  the  thought  as  continuously  as  do  the 
quatrains  in  the  "Rubaiyat."  The  sonnet  has  four- 
teen lines  which  the  rhyme  scheme  divides  into  groups 
of  eight  and  six,  called  respectively  the  octave  and 
the  sestette.  There  are  several  variations  of  the 
rhyme  scheme.  The  Shakespearian  form  rhymes 
ahab  cdcdefefg  g.  The  Petrarchan  or  Italian 
scheme  is  abbaabba-cdcdcd,  with  a  distinct 
break  between  the  octave  and  sestette.  English 
poets  frequently  use  the  Italian  form  without  the 
break  after  the  octave,  as  did  Keats  in  his  sonnet 

"On  First  Looking  into  Chapman's  Homer." 

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"Much  have  I  traveled  in  the  realms  of  gold, 
And  many  goodly  states  and  kingdoms  seen; 
Romid  many  western  islands  have  I  been 
Which  bards  in  fealty  to  Apollo  hold. 
Oft  of  one  wide  expanse  had  I  been  told 
That    deep  -  browed    Homer    ruled    as    his 

demesne; 
Yet  did  I  never  breathe  its  pure  serene 
Till  I  heard  Chapman  speak  out  loud  and  bold : 
Then  felt  I  like  some  watcher  of  the  skies 
When  a  new  planet  swims  into  his  ken; 
Or  like  stout  Cortez  when  with  eagle  eyes 

He  stared  at  the  Pacific — and  all  his  men 
Looked  at  each  other  with  a  wild  surmise — 
Silent,  upon  a  peak  in  Darien." 

Blank  Verse 

Blank  verse  is  simply  unrhymed  verse,  whatever  its 
form.  The  form  most  widely  useful  in  English  is  the 
iambic  pentameter,  to-day  almost  inevitably  used  in 
poetic  drama  and  long  narrative  poems.  It  is  too 
familiar  in  our  ears  to  need  illustration.  Blank  verse 
may  occur  in  regular  stanza  form. 

"  The  last  sunbeam 
Lightly  falls  from  the  finished  Sabbath, 
On  the  pavement  here — and  there  beyond,  it  is 
looking, 
Down  a  new-made  double  grave." 

Free  Verse 

Free  verse  is  a  term  applied  to  verse  which  is 
rhythmic  but  free  from  the  strict  rules  of  meter.     It 

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PROSODY 

cannot  be  strictly  distinguished  from  rhythmic  prose. 
Its  time  divisions  are  commonly  longer  than  those  of 
the  strict  meters,  and  it  allows  much  freedom  in  the 
arrangement  of  unaccented  syllables. 

"The  heavens  declare  the  glory  of  God, 
And  the  firmament  showeth  His  handiwork. 
Day  unto  day  uttereth  speech, 
And  night  unto  night  showeth  knowledge." 

"Shine!   shine!   shine! 
Pour  down  your  warmth,  great  Sun! 
While  we  bask — we  two  together. 
Two  together! 

Winds  blow  south,  or  winds  blow  north. 
Day  come  white,  or  night  come  black, 
Home,  or  rivers  and  mountains  from  home, 
Singing  all  time,  minding  no  time. 
While  we  two  keep  together." 


n 


OUTLINE  FOR  REVIEW  OF  GRAMMAR 

Grammar  is  the  science  of  inflection  and  syntax. 
Inflection  deals  with  the  forms  of  words ;  syntax  deals 
with  their  relations  to  one  another,  or  construction. 

Words  are  divided  on  the  basis  of  the  purposes 
they  serve  into  classes  called  parts  of  speech.  Those 
most  coromonly  distinguished  are,  noun,  pronoun, 
verb,  adjective,  adverb,  conjunction,  preposition, 
interjection,  article. 

A  noun  is  a  word  which  stands  as  the  name  of 
something.  A  common  noun  is  one  which  designates 
an  object  merely  as  a  member  of  a  class,  not  as  an 
individual;  as,  man,  laborer,  farm.  A  proper  noun 
names  an  object  as  an  individual  without  necessarily 
referring  it  to  its  class;  as,  James  Quinn,  Hillside 
Acres,  Memorial  Day.  An  abstract  noun  is  one 
which  names  something  which  is  not  apprehended 
by  the  senses;  as,  justice,  sanctity.  A  concrete  noun 
names  a  concrete  thing;  as,  water,  tree. 

A  pronoun  is  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun;  its 
function  is  to  designate  an  object  without  naming  it. 
The  classes  of  pronouns  will  be  discussed  when  their 
functions  are  described.'     The  term  substantive,  as 

'  The  noun  which  is  the  name  of  the  object  which  the  pronoun 
designates  is  called  ita  antecedent;  as  the  word  mark  in  the  sentence, 
/  shot  at  the  mark  but  did  not  hit  il. 

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noun  or  adjective,  applies  to  things  which  have  the 
nature  of  a  noun,  as  nouns  themselves,  pronouns, 
noun-phrases,  noun-clauses. 
A  verb  is  a  word  which  asserts  or  declares. 

I  read. 

You  know  him. 

An  adjective  is  a  word  used  to  modify  or  describe 
a  noun. 

The  huge  monster. 

An  adverb  is  a  word  used  to  limit  or  modify  a  verb, 
adjective,  or  other  adverb. 

Go  quickly. 

You  are  very^  kind. 

A  conjunction  is  a  word  used  to  connect  words  or 
groups  of  words.  It  may  connect  any  words,  clauses, 
or  sentences. 

Proud  and  saucy. 
Poor  but  honest. 
Yes,  but  you  don't  go. 

A  preposition  is  a  word  which  connects  a  sub- 
stantive called  its  object  with  other  words  in  the 
sentence. 

*  The  use  of  very  as  an  adverb  as  well  as  adjective  is  long  estab- 
lished in  English  (for  example,  in  early  ballads),  while  the  true 
adverbial  form,  verily,  remains;  still,  in  good  usage,  very  is  not 
used  with  verbs,  nor,  in  good  American  usage,  with  participles, 
though  good  modern  English  writers  are  accustomed  to  the  latter 
use.  Possibly  this  is  one  of  many  instances  of  colonial  retention 
of  seventeenth-century  usage. 

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A  GUIDE  TO  GOOD  ENGLISH 

Come  to  me. 

The  general  itrith  his  aides. 

An  interjection  is  a  word  "thrown  in"  without 
grammatical  relation  with  others,  and  with  hardly 
more  than  an  implied  meaning,  to  express  emotion; 
as,  oh,  alas,  pshaw,  hurrah,  and  the  like. 

The  article  is  the  part  of  speech  represented  by 
a  or  an  as  the  indefinite  article,  and  the  as  the  definite 
article.  Like  the  adjective,  the  article  attaches  to 
the  noun,  but  with  little  or  no  limiting  or  modifying 
power. 

The  Same  Word  as  Different  Parts  of  Speech 

A  word  may  be  one  part  of  speech  in  one  sense  or 
one  construction,  and  be  another  in  another. 

J  do  not  like  to  travel.     (Verb.) 

Travel  is  recreation.     (Noun.) 

He  shook  hands  with  every  one  but  me. 
(Preposition.) 

Every  one  had  gone  hut  I.  (Conjunction. 
See  page  41.) 

INFLECTION 

In  English  the  parts  of  speech  which  show  changes 
of  form  according  to  their  function  are  nouns,  pro- 
nouns, verbs,  adjectives,  and  adverbs. 

Nouns 

Nouns  change  their  form  slightly  to  indicate  their 
case  and  number.     The  case  of  a  noun  is  its  relation- 

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ship  to  verbs,  prepositions,  and  other  nouns.  As  the 
subject  of  a  verb,  its  case  is  nominative.  As  the 
object  of  a  verb  or  preposition,  its  case  is  objective. 
If  it  names  the  possessor  of  an  object  named  by  a 
noun  or  pronoun,  its  case  is  possessive. 

Nouns  have  but  one  case-form,  the  possessive, 
formed  by  adding  an  apostrophe  and  s  ('s)  to  the 
singular  form  for  the  singular  possessive,  and  an 
apostrophe  or  an  apostrophe  and  s  ('  or  's)  to  the 
plural  form  for  the  plural  possessive. 

Sing.  Poss.:  man's,  city's,  woman's,  Smithers', 

Burns's. 
Plu.  Poss.:    men's,     cities',     women's,     boys , 

Joneses'. 

Nouns  have  two  forms  to  indicate  number: 
singular  when  the  noun  is  the  name  of  one  object; 
plural  when  the  noun  is  the  name  of  more  than  one 
object.  The  plural  form  is  made  from  the  singular  by 
adding  s  or  es,  or  by  other  vowel  and  consonant 
changes  too  varied  and  too  familiar  to  need  discus- 
sion.    (See  certain  rules  for  plurals,  page  23.) 

Classification  and  Inflection  of  Pronouns 

The  pronouns,  like  the  nouns,  exhibit  forms  for 
case  and  number,  and  in  addition  forms  for  person 
and  gender.  A  pronoun  in  the  first  person  designates 
the  speaker,  in  the  second  person  designates  the  per- 
son addressed,  in  the  third  person  designates  any  one 
but  the  speaker  or  the  one  addressed.  A  masculine 
pronoun  designates  a  male  being,  a  feminine  pronoun 

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A  GUIDE  TO  GOOD  ENGLISH 

desigliates  a  female  being,  a  neuter  pronoun  desig- 
nates an  inanimate  object  or  a  being  of  sex  unknown 
or  indeterminate. 

Inflectional  forms  of  the  personal  pronouns  are: 


Singular 

Plural 

Nom. 

I 

First  Person 

we 

Poss. 
Obj. 

my  or  mine  ^ 
me 

our  or  ours  ^ 
us 

Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 

thou 
thy  01 
thee 

Second  Person 
•  thine  ^ 

Third  Person 

you  or  ye 
your  or  yours  ^ 
you  or  ye 

Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 

Masc. 
he 
his 
him 

Fern.     Neuter 
she           it 
her  or  hers  '   its 
her          it 

they 

their  or  theirs  ^ 

them 

The  demonstrative  pronouns  this  and  that  change 
their  forms  only  in  the  plurals  these  and  those. 

Relative  pronouns,  pronouns  used  as  connectives 
to  indicate  grammatical  relation,  are  who,  which, 
what,  and  that.  Who  has  the  possessive  form  whose 
and  the  objective  whom.  Modern  usage  applies  who 
commonly  to  persons,  and  which  to  animals  or  in- 
animate objects.     What  and  that  are  not  inflected. 

^  Note  here  the  distinction  between  the  possessive  pronoun  and 
the  possessive  adjective: 

This  is  mine.     (Pronoun,  used  as  a  noun.) 

This  is  my  knife.     (Adjective  limiting  knife.) 

Other  possessives  of  various  classes  may  be  adjectives  or  pronouns 
without  change  of  form.     (This  is  his  book.    The  book  is  his.) 

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Interrogative  pronouns  are  not  inflected.  They 
are  who,  what,  and  which.  Whether  in  the  now 
practically  obsolete  sense  of  ''which  of  the  two" 
(''Whether  will  ye  choose  the  better  way  or  the 
worse?")  is  sometimes  included  among  them. 

The  so-called  indefinite  pronouns  are  words  which 
are  sometimes  pronouns  and  sometimes  adjectives. 
The  class  includes  such  words  as  all,  any,  any  one, 
aught,  both,  each,  either,  every,  few,  many,  naught,  none, 
nobody,  neither,  one,  other,  some,  something,  somewhat, 
such.     They  have  no  inflections  worth  noting. 

Reflexive  and  intensive  pronouns  are  those  com- 
pounded of  the  personal  pronouns  with  self  (myself, 
yourself,  himself,  etc.).  These  are  intensives  when 
used  to  emphasize  the  simple  forms;  as,  "He  himself 
hath  said  it."  When  used  to  indicate  that  the 
action  of  the  verb  is  exerted  on  the  subject  of  the 
verb,  they  are  reflexives;  as,  "He  hurt  himself." 

Adjectives;    Comparison 

Adjectives  change  form  to  indicate  the  degree 
(amount  or  intensity)  of  the  qualities  they  name. 
The  positive  form  is  the  ordinary  form  of  the  adjec- 
tive, and  indicates  no  special  de^^ree.  The  compara- 
tive indicates  a  higher  degree  of  the  quality  in  the 
object  named  than  in  some  other  object.  The  su- 
perlative indicates  the  highest  degree  of  the  quality. 
The  comparative  and  superlative  forms  are  usually 
made  by  adding  er  and  est  to  the  positive  form. 

Positive:         high. 
Comparative:  higher. 
Superlative:    highest. 
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A   GUIDE   TO  GOOD  ENGLISH 

(The  comparison  of  adjectives  by  the  use  of  more 
and  most  can  hardly  be  said  to  involve  any  change  of 
form.) 

Irregular  forms  of  comparison  appear  in  familiar 
words;   as: 


good 

better 

best 

bad 

worse 

worst 

much 

more 

most 

little 

less 

least 

far 

farther 

farthest 

Adverbs  form  comparatives  and  superlatives  in  the 
same  way;  for  example,  fast,  faster,  fastest;  likely, 
likelier,  likeliest;  and  irregular  forms;  as,  ill,  worse; 
well,  better;  and  the  like. 

Clauses  and  Phrases  as  Parts  of  Speech 

A  clause  or  a  phrase  may  be  used  in  the  sentence 
in  the  construction  of  a  noun,  adjective,  or  other  part 
of  speech. 

Noun  or  substantive  clause:  1  saw  that  he  could  not 

do  it.  (Obj.  of  saw.) 
Adjective  clause:  The  king,  who  had  three  beautiful 

daughters —  (Modifies  king.) 
Adverbial  clause:  They  found  him  where  the  fight 

was  fiercest.    (Limiting /ow/wi.) 

Verbs 

In  English,  verbs  exhibit  greater  variety  of  inflec- 
tional forms  than  is  to  be  found  in  other  parts  of 

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speech.  These  forms  may  be  seen  in  the  paradigm  of 
a  strong  verb  shown  on  pages  160  to  164. 

A  strong  verb  is  one  which  changes  its  vowel  to 
indicate  changes  of  tense;  as,  ride,  rode,  ridden; 
drink,  drank,  drunk;  sing,  sang,  sung;   and  the  like. 

A  weak  verb  is  one  which  forms  its  preterite  or  past 
tense  by  adding  the  suffix  -ed  to  the  present  form,  as 
contain,  contained;    hate,  hated;    and  the  like. 

The  verb  changes  its  form  to  indicate  person  and 
number  in  agreement  with  its  subject. 

The  verb  makes  a  series  of  changes  in  form  called 
tense,  which  indicate  the  time  of  the  action  as  past, 
present,  or  future;  or  (in  the  perfect  tenses)  action 
completed  or  thought  of  as  past,  present,  or  future 
in  reference  to  the  time  of  some  other  action;  as, 
"I  shall  have  finished  when  you  come." 

The  verb  makes  a  series  of  changes  in  form  called 
mode,  to  indicate  the  manner  of  the  action.  The 
mode  which  indicates  that  the  action  is  thought  of  as 
fact  is  called  indicative;  that  which  marks  the  action 
as  possibly  not  fact  is  subjunctive.  Other  so-called 
modes  are  not  properly  inflectional  forms.  (See  note 
on  page  159.) 

The  forms  indicating  the  voice  of  the  verb  express 
the  relation  of  the  subject  of  the  verb  to  the  action 
which  the  verb  expresses.  They  show  whether  the  sub- 
ject acts  (active  voice)  or  is  acted  upon  (passive  voice). 

Adive:    I  hold. 
Passive:  1  am  held. 

A  finite  verb  is  one  of  the  forms  of  the  verb  which 
are  limited  to  certain  times  or  conditions  of  action 

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(any  forms  which  indicate  mode  or  tense),  or  to  use 
with  expressed  subjects. 

The  forms  of  the  verb  which  are  not  finite  are  the 
infinitive  and  the  gerund.  The  infinitive  expresses 
action  without  subject  or  condition;  as,  "To  err  is 
human;  to  forgive,  divine."  The  gerund  is  the  verbal 
noun  in  ing.  It  is  unhmited  in  its  use,  and  is  some- 
times called  an  infinitive:  ''Working  (i.  e.,  to  work) 
all  day  is  hard."     (See  pages  157, 158.) 

The  participles  are  the  forms  in  ing  and  ed,  and  the 
corresponding  forms  in  more  or  less  irregular  verbs, 
which  are  used  as  adjectives.     (See  page  158.) 

He  was  astonished  and  angry,  but  still  smiling 
his  set  smile. 

An  auxiliary  verb  is  a  helping  verb,  which  is  added 
to  another  to  express  tense,  mode,  or  state  or  condi- 
tion of  action.  The  common  auxiliary  verbs  are: 
he,  can,  do,  have,  shall,  will,  should,  would,  could,  may, 
murst,  might. 

The  principal  parts  of  a  verb  are  the  present 
infinitive,  the  preterite,  and  the  past  participle. 
They  are  used  as  index  of  the  changes  of  form  for 
tense;  as,  go,  went,  gone;  write,  wrote,  written;  walk, 
walked,  walked. 

SYNTAX 

Syntax  deals  with  the  construction  of  words;  their 
relationship  in  the  sentence. 

A  sentence  is  a  group  of  words  expressing  a  com- 
plete idea.    It  is  the  smallest  complete  or  independent 

unit  of  discourse. 

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A  clause  is  a  group  of  words  containing  subject  and 
predicate  combined  with  other  such  group  or  groups 
to  form  a  sentence.  A  clause  which  would  form  a 
complete  sentence  if  it  stood  by  itself  is  called  an 
independent  clause.  One  which  would  not  so  form 
a  sentence  is  called  a  dependent  clause. 

A  phrase  is  grammatically  a  group  of  related  words 
not  containing  subject  and  predicate;  loosely  the 
term  is  applied  to  any  small  group  of  words. 

Elements  of  the  Sentence 

The  essential  elements  of  the  sentence  are  two: 
the  subject,  or  what  one  talks  about; and  the  predi- 
cate, or  what  one  says  of  it.  The  subject  is  a  nomina- 
tive noun,  pronoun,  or  substantive  phrase  or  clause, 
and  the  predicate  is  a  verb. 

He  spoke. 

Modifiers  of  Subject  and  Predicate 

The  subject  may  have  adjective  modifiers  and  the 
predicate  adverbial  ones.  These  may  be  in  the  form 
of  words,  phrases,  or  clauses. 

The  old  gentleman  spoke  as  soon  as  he  saw  me. 

The  Object 

A  third  element  of  the  sentence  is  the  object.  It 
is  a  noun,  pronoun,  or  substantive  phrase  or  clause, 
naming  that  upon  which  the  action  of  the  verb  is 
exerted. 

I  threw  the  hall. 

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A  verb  which  takes  an  object  is  called  a  transitive 
verb ;  as,  take,  bring,  persuade.  A  verb  which  takes 
no  object  is  called  intransitive;  as,  walk,  rejoice,  fly. ^ 

The  verb  may  have  an  indirect  object;  a  noun  or 
substantive  element  naming  the  object  toward  which 
the  action  of  the  verb  is  directed. 

I  brought  him  the  money. 

Direct  and  indirect  objects  may  have  adjective 
modifiers  in  the  form  of  adjective  words,  phrases,  or 
clauses. 

He  ate  his  hastily  'prepared  meal. 
I  brought  him,  who  was  ready  to  receive  it,  the 
money  he  asked. 

Predicate  Adjective 

Some  verbs  require  an  adjective  called  the  predi- 
cate adjective  to  complete  the  meaning. 

The  yard  looks  better. 
The  price  is  high. 

Predicate  Nominative 

Some  verbs  of  being,  seeming,  becoming,  and  the 
like  require  to  complete  the  meaning  a  noun  or  sub- 
stantive element  belonging  or  referring  to  the  subject. 
It  is  called  the  predicate  nominative. 

'Such  expressions  as  "  walk  a  mile,"  "  walk  the  plank,"  "rejoice 
the  heart,"  "  fly  the  kite,"  do  not  exhibit  direct  objects  for  these 
verbs — they  mean  "  walk  for  a  mile,"  "  walk  on  the  plank,"  "  cause 
the  heart  to  rejoice."  "  make  the  kite  fly."  The  fact  that  in  Enghsh 
we  do  not  distinguish  dative  from  accusative,  obscures  the  distinc- 
tion between  transitive  and  intransitive. 

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The  Prince  became  Emperor. 
Chaucer  was  a  poet. 

Cognate  Object 

An  object  which  repeats  in  substantive  form  the 
idea  expressed  in  the  verb  is  called  a  cognate  object, 
or  cognate  accusative. 

"He  smiled  a  sickly  sort  of  smile." 

"And  fired  the  shot  heard  round  the  world." 

The  Copula 

The  verb  to  be  in  all  its  forms  when  it  merely  con- 
nects the  subject  with  the  predicate  nominative  or 
the  predicate  adjective  is  called  the  copula. 

Appositives 

An  appositive  is  a  noun  or  substantive  element  in 
the  construction  of  an  adjective  modifier  of  another 
noun,  repeating  for  identification  or  limitation  the 
idea  of  the  noun  with  which  it  is  in  apposition. 

I  mean  Smith  the  engineer,  not  Smith  the  artist. 

A  noun  in  apposition  is  in  the  same  case  as  the 

noun  it  is  in  apposition  with.     In  some  constructions 

the  two  are  almost  equivalent  to  a  compound.     In 

the  sentence   "My   classmate   Smith's  yacht  won 

the   cup,"    both   classmate   and   Smith   are   in   the 

possessive,  but  the  sign  of  the  possessive  is  attached 

only  to  the  second,  as  in  the  case  of  compounds  like 

brother-in-law^  s. 

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Kinds  of  Sentences 

Sentences  are  classified  according  to  their  meaning 
as: 

1.  Declarative:  a  declarative  sentence  is  one  which 
makes  an  assertion. 

2.  Interrogative:  an  interrogative  sentence  is  one 
which  asks  a  question. 

Has  John  come? 

3.  Imperative:  an  imperative  sentence  is  one  which 
is  a  command. 

Come,  John! 

4.  Exclamatory:  an  exclamatory  sentence  is  one 
which  expresses  surprise  or  emotion  as  if  spoken  with 
vehemence  or  emphasis.  It  may  be  declarative, 
imperative,  or  interrogative  in  form. 

Here  he  comes! 
Did  he,  really! 
Tell  me  now! 

Sentences  are  classified  according  to  their  structure 
as: 

1.  Simple:  a  simple  sentence  is  one  composed  of  a 
single  independent  clause.  It  contains  one  subject 
and  one  predicate. 

The  sun  rose. 

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2.  Compound:  a  compound  sentence  is  composed  of 
two  or  more  independent  clauses.  It  contains  two 
or  more  subjects  and  predicates. 

The  sun  rose,  and  the  wind  began  to  blow. 

3.  Complex:  a  complex  sentence  is  one  which  has 
two  or  more  clauses  one  or  more  of  which  must  be 
dependent  or  subordinate. 

While  we  were  getting  up  the  mainsail,  the 
sun  rose,  and  the  wind  began  to  blow. 

Syntax  of  the  Verb 
Number 

A  verb  agrees  with  its  subject  in  number. 

This  rule  causes  no  difficulty  except  in  cases  in 
which  there  is  doubt  as  to  whether  the  subject  is 
singular  or  plural.  Collective  nouns  may  be  fol- 
lowed by  either  singular  or  plural  verbs  according  as 
the  speaker  thinks  of  the  individuals  or  components 
of  the  collection,  or  of  the  collection  itself.  We  may 
even  have  both  constructions  in  the  same  sentence; 
as,  The  crowd  was  moving;  but  they  moved  in  different 
directions.  Similarly,  subjects  which  are  grammati- 
cally plural  but  logically  singular  may  take  the  singu- 
lar form  of  the  verb;  as,  Four  hundred  and  forty  yards 
is  a  long  sprint.  Two  or  more  nouns  joined  by  and 
may  take  a  singular  verb  when  one  is  thought  of  as 
the  real  subject  and  the  rest  as  afterthoughts;  as, 
The  river  is  full,  and  the  brooks  and  ponds.  The 
colonel    with    his  two  orderlies  was  seen  from  the 

hilltop. 

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Person 

A  verb  agrees  with  its  subject  in  person. 

This  rule  is  hard  to  follow  in  a  sentence  like 
Either  you  or  I  {amor  are)  right,  in  which  either  form  of 
the  verb  seems  wrong.  In  most  such  cases  the  forms 
must  be  and  may  be  ofifer  a  way  out  of  the  dilemma. 

Tense 

The  mere  naming  and  classification  of  the  tenses 
in  the  paradigm  (page  160)  is  almost  the  only  indica- 
tion of  their  common  uses  which  would  not  obscure 
the  matter  by  technical  terms.  Vulgar  errors  like 
I  seen  and  you  was  (if  they  involve  tense  at  all)  are 
as  a  rule  bad  habits  rather  than  misunderstandings. 
Even  the  so-called  sequence  of  tenses,  often  misun- 
derstood, is  a  matter  combined  of  idiom  and  common 
sense. 

Sequence  of  tenses  is  the  relation  of  the  time  of 
the  two  or  more  verbs  in  the  main  and  subordinate 
clauses  of  a  complex  sentence.  The  term  is  a  misno- 
mer if  it  is  taken  to  imply  that  the  tense  of  the  main 
verb  "governs"  the  tense  of  the  subordinate  verb. 

The  tense  of  each  verb  in  a  complex  sentence  is 
determined  by  the  meaning  of  the  clause  in  which  it 
stands. 

I  knew  that  he  said  it.  This  is  the  ordinary 
sequence  meaning  "I  knew  it  at  the  time." 

/  knew  that  he  says  it.  This  is  possible  as  mean- 
ing "I  knew  that  he  is  in  the  habit  of  saying  it," 
in  which  the  present  indicates  habitual  action 
or  continued  state;  as,  "I  knew  that  he  is  an 
inveterate  liar,"  or  "I  knew  that  Gloucester  is 

the  father  of  Edgar." 

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I  knew  that  he  will  say  it.  This  form  is  possible 
to  indicate  future  time  with  reference  to  the 
present  (the  time  of  speaking)  rather  than  future 
with  reference  to  the  time  of  the  main  verb.  It 
is  conceivable  in  a  dialogue  which  would  make 
this  clear;   as: 

"He  will  say  you  are  afraid;  you  knew  that, 
I  suppose." 

"Yes,  I  knew  he  will  say  it,  but  I  knew  nobody 
will  believe  it." 

/  did  not  wish  to  go.  This  is  the  ordinary 
sequence  in  which  go  is  present  with  reference  to 
the  past  time  of  did,  meaning,  "I  did  not  wish 
to  go  at  that  time." 

/  did  not  wish  to  have  gone.  This  is  possible 
only  in  the  meaning  "I  did  not  wish  (at  the 
time)  to  have  gone  (at  some  time  still  further  in 
the  past)." 

I  coidd  have  wished  to  do  it  differently.  The 
time  of  the  subordinate  verb  is  present  as  dated 
from  the  time  of  the  main  verb. 

/  could  have  wished  to  have  done  it  differently. 
The  only  possible  meaning  of  this  would  be,  "I 
could  have  wished  (at  the  time)  to  have  done  it 
differently  (at  some  time  still  further  in  the  past) ." 

May,  might,  and  should  in  clauses  of  purpose  have, 
more  or  less  idiomatically,  a  dependence  for  tense 
on  the  main  verb,  may  following  present  and  future 
tenses,  and  might  following  the  preterite  and  plu- 
perfect. 

I  warn  you  in  order  that  you  may  be  prepared. 

I  warned  you  that  you  might  be  prepared. 

I  decided  that  you  should  see  him. 

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Either  may  or  might  may  be  used  after  perfect 
tenses,  according  to  the  meaning. 

/  have  told  him  in  order  that  he  may  he  pre- 
pared.    (Looks  definitely  toward  the  future.) 

/  have  told  him  in  order  that  he  might  he 
prepared.  (A  certain  remoteness  from  fact  in 
present  or  future.) 

Mode — The  Subjunctive 

The  subjunctive  is  used  in  cases  in  which  the  action 
is  thought  of  as  possibly  not  fact, '  expressing  in  the 
various  constructions  varying  degrees  of  remoteness 
from  actuality.  Note  that  in  many  of  the  fellow- 
ing  examples  the  substitution  of  the  indicative  for 
the  subjunctive  would  not  make  the  sentences  un- 
granunatical,  but  would  change  the  meaning,  much 
as  the  meaning  changes  in  the  lines : 

"Well — if  it  be  so — so  it  is,  you  know; 
And  if  it  be  so,  so  be  it." 

Conditions. — The    subjunctive    is    used    in    clauses 
expressing  condition  introduced  by  if  and  unless. 

If  the  case  he  such,  I  shall  act  accordingly. 
Here  the  present  subjunctive  indicates  present 
time  and  no  more  than  an  implication  against  the 
possibility:  it  may  or  may  not  be  the  case. 

//  the  case  were  such,  I  should  act  accordingly. 

The  change  to  the  preterite  subjunctive  does  not 

indicate  change  of  time  (which  is  still  present) 

but  more  remoteness  from  fact:    "  I  do  not  for  a 

moment  think  that  it  is  such." 

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Unless  he  be  already  gone,  you  may  warn  him. 
This  implies  that  very  likely  he  has  not  gone. 

Unless  he  were  dead  he  would  be  here  by  now. 
This  is  a  strong  implication  that  he  must  be 
dead. 

If  he  had  been  dead,  she  would  have  known  it. 
The  pluperfect  subjunctive  indicates  past  time 
and  high  degree  of  remoteness  from  fact:  he 
could  not  have  been  dead. 

Were  he  dead,  I  should  tell  you.  Here  the  con- 
dition is  expressed  without  if  by  the  subjunctive 
preceding  the  subject. 

She  looked  as  if  she  were  pleased.  Conditions 
introduced  by  as  if  and  as  though  are  never 
thought  of  as  actual,  and  are  in  the  preterite  sub- 
junctive. (Compare  the  second  example  above.) 
Here  the  indicative  would  be  wrong. 

'Twere  better  to  die  than  to  suffer.  This  sub- 
junctive is  perhaps  to  be  explained  as  depending 
on  a  condition  implied  but  not  expressed;  as, 
"If  one  had  the  choice." 

You  had  better  go  while  you  can.  This  and 
similar  constructions  {had  rather,  had  liefer)  may 
also  depend  on  implied  conditions;  as,  "If  you 
are  going  at  all,"  or  "If  you  wish  to  go."  It 
seems  to  be  pluperfect  subjunctive  to  indicate 
that  the  state  of  affairs  suggested  is  contrary  to 
fact:  the  person  addressed  is  not  going.  So  in 
"  (If  you  wish  to  be  safe)  You  were  best  keep  a 
sharp  lookout,"  the  preterite  subjunctive  in- 
dicates remoteness  from  fact.  The  more  com- 
mon expression,  "  It  is  time  we  were  going,"  falls 
in  the  same  class;  it  implies  that  we  are  not 
going.     Had  better,  had  rather,  and  the  like  are 

in  thoroughly  good  use,  and  have  long  been  so. 

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Concessions. — The  indicative  is  used  in  conces- 
sional clauses  after  though  and  although  when  the 
concession  is  thought  of  as  fact. 

Though  I  am  a  fool,  at  least  I  know  it. 

The  subjunctive  is  used  in  concessional  clauses 
when  the  concession  is  thought  of  as  not  fact. 

"Though  I  walk  through  the  valley  of  the 
shadow  of  death,  I  will  fear  no  evil." 

Purpose. — The  subjunctive  is  sometimes  used  to 
express  purpose  in  clauses  introduced  by  before,  lest, 
that,  until. 

Flee,  lest  wrath  overtake  ye. 

The  stafif  shall  sustain  thee,  that  thou  fall  not. 

I  stay  until  honor  call  me. 

Prayers  and  WisJies. — The  subjunctive  is  used  in 
prayers  and  wishes  as  after  an  implied  may  or  /  urish. 

(May)     God    save    the    Commonwealth    of 
Massachusetts. 
Heaven  forgive  us! 
{I  loish)  O  that  'twere  possible! 

Exhortations. — Exhortations  such  as  are  ordinarily 
expressed  by  Let  us,  etc.,  may  be  expressed  by  the 
first  person  plural  of  the  subjunctive  standing  before 
the  pronoun  which  is  its  subject. 

Sing  we  now  a  glad  song. 

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Voice 

The  change  from  active  to  passive  voice  needs  no 
comment  in  the  case  of  ordinary  transitive  verbs,  in 
which  the  object  of  the  active  verb  becomes  the  sub- 
ject of  the  passive  verb :  /  struck  him;  he  was  struck 
by  me.  The  indirect  object  does  not  so  easily  become 
the  subject  of  a  passive  verb.  They  gave  him  fifty 
dollars  and  told  him  to  go,  is  not  satisfactory  in  the 
form,  He  was  given  fifty  dollars,  etc.,  because  he  is  not 
given  in  the  sense  that  the  fifty  dollars  are  given. 

For  further  discussion  of  passive  constructions, 
see  page  56. 

The  Infinitive 

The  infinitive  is  a  verbal  noun ;  that  is,  it  partakes 
of  both  natures,  verbal  and  substantive. 

It  partakes  of  the  nature  of  the  verb  in  that 

1.  Its  modifier  is  an  adverb;  as,  to  ride  swiftly. 

2.  It  takes  a  direct  object;  as,  to  see  a  fine  lady. 

3.  It  is  used  in  verb  phrases  with  auxiliaries  in  the 
formation  of  certain  modes  and  tenses;  as,  I  will 
(to)  go. 

It  partakes  of  the  nature  of  the  noun  in  that 

1.  It  may  be  used  as  the  subject  of  a  verb;   as, 
to  yield  seems  impossible. 

2.  It  may  be  used  as  the  object  of  a  verb;  as,  I 
have  decided  to  go. 

3.  It  may  be  used  as  the  object  of  a  preposition; 
as,  there  is  no  course  open  except  to  go. 

4.  It  may  be  used  as  a  predicate  nominative;  as, 
to  admit  so  much  is  to  yield. 

The  infinitive  is  used  to  express  purpose  or  result;  as: 

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I  went  to  see  the  President. 
The  treaty  served  to  open  the  entire  province 
to  commerce. 

To  as  the  sign  of  the  infinitive  may  be  omitted,  not 
only  in  verb  phrases  like  will  go,  but  in  such  a  sen- 
tence as  '^ Returning  were  as  tedious  as  go  o'er." 

The  Gerund 

The  gerund  is  the  verbal  noun  ending  in  ing.  It 
is  sometimes  called  an  infinitive  because  like  the 
infinitive  with  to  it  is  a  verbal  noun,  and  has  the 
same  affiliations  with  both  verb  and  noun  as  the 
other  form.  Its  syntax  is  so  nearly  the  same  that  in 
many  cases  one  form  may  be  substituted  for  the  other. 
Both  forms  are  used  in  the  same  sentence  in  the  last 
example  given  above.  It  is  often  confused  with  the 
present  participle  because  of  the  identity  of  form. 

Saying  such  things,  he  took  leave  of  us. 
(Participle  in  the  construction  of  an  adjective.) 

Saying  such  things  is  preposterous.  (Gerund 
in  the  construction  of  a  noun.) 

The  Participle 

The  participle  is  like  an  adjective  in  limiting 
nouns,  pronouns,  or  substantive  phrases  or  clauses. 
It  is  like  the  verb  in  that  it  expresses  action  or  state, 
and  may  take  a  direct  object. 

He  went  out,  taking  his  papers  with  him. 

Absolute  Construction 

The  absolute  construction  is  a  noun  or  pronoun  with 

a  participle  standing  without  a  connective,  taking  the 

place  of  a  clause.     Its  use  is  discussed  on  page  49. 

158 


Ill 

PARADIGM    OF    A    STRONG    VERB 

A  PARADIGM  of  a  regular  strong  verb  exhibits  the 
conjugation  of  modal  and  other  auxiliaries. 

Note  that  in  the  subjunctive  forms  the  word  if  is 
no  part  of  the  conjugation,  but  it  is  included  merely 
to  indicate  the  difference  between  such  forms  as 
we  give,  indicative,  and  we  give,  subjunctive.  The 
emphatic  and  progressive  forms  of  the  indicative, 
and  the  so-called  conditional,  potential,  and  obligative 
modes  are  really  verb-phrases  to  indicate  different 
uses  of  the  verb,  and  not  genuine  inflectional  forms. 
They  bear  about  the  same  relation  to  the  inflectional 
forms  that  a  noun-phrase  indicating  case,  such  a*- 
of  John,  bears  to  the  inflectional  possessive,  John's. 
11 


A 

GUIDE 

TO   GOOD   ENGLISH 

> 

i»l 

9 

> 

give 
tgive 
St  give 

P 

•Ji 

>^   -a 

-< 

MS       .>J 

-^  ":  3 

■^s 

^5    3 

wemus 
youmu 
they  in 

n 
O 

<  5 
^1 

I  mu 
thou 

hem 

«,  « 

0) 

J 

^? 

■W           ID 

<c  >.2 

O    (1)           i' 

.t%    . 

1 

S2 

S  o 

^1 

I  may  give 
thou  mayee 

give 
he  may  giv 

re  may  giv 
ou  may  gi 
ley  may  g 

might  giv 
lou  might 
give 
e  might  g 

we  might  g 
you  might 

they  might 
give 

P  >.*j 

l-H  .»»          pQ 

?> 

2 

s- 

I  should  give 
thou  wouldst 

give 
he  would  give 

give 

give 

d  give 

1 

a 

^2 

0-C 

bould 
wouk 
woul 

we  8 

you 
they 

> 

t 

P 

I  give 
thou  give 

he  give 

we  give 
you  give 
they  give 

> 

•gave 
ugave 

ey  gave 

> 

J3 

ou  shalt 

ve 

shall  give 

W 

O 

> 

1— 1  «d      j3 

P  >)     f 

»— 4 

5 -5.2 

H 

OQ 

«—  .*H              *^ 

."2  It:  .13 

^."S      ?3 

«^»M              **-4 

u-< 

f^ 

H 

? 

a 

.Bf^ 

s  giving 
wert  giv- 

g 

as  giving 

M             1 
.Si        > 

1 

> 

t 
> 

O 

o 

Q 

H 
O 
< 

•o 

31 

giving 
art  giv 

giving 

re  givin 

are  giyi 
are  giv 

we  wore  giv 
you  were  gi 

ing 
they  were  g 

ing 

'a 

J3 

g 

wilt  be 
ving 
ill  be  gi 
g 

o 

Hi 

3 

I  am 
thou 

he  is 

we  a 

you 
they 

01  2  a  P 

1— 1    -^          ^ 

J3. 

K4 

1   - 

CD 

■< 
O 

a 

X 

■< 
a 
a. 

a 

b 

.-3 

do  give 

ioU  dost  give 

e  does  (doth) 
give 

e  do  give 
ou  do  give 
icy  do  give 

did  give 
bou  didst  giv 

e  did  give 

we  did  give 
you  did  give 

they  did  give 

^—     _= 

P  >,- 

t-^  t^     ja 

*s 

?! 

+3 

cn 

=3 

M  'I 

CU 

a 

I  give 
thou  gives 

he  gives  or 
giveth 

we  give 
you  (ye)  g 
they  give 

I  gave 
thou  gave 

he  gave 

we  gave 
you  gave 

they  gave 

give 
thou  wilt 

(shalt) 
he  will  (s 

give 

Singular 
Ist  per. 
2d  per. 

3d  per. 

Plural 
lat  per. 
2d  per. 
3d  per. 

Singular 
Ist  per. 
2d  per. 

3d  per. 

Plural 
1st  per. 
2d  per. 

3d  per. 

3  a 

Mv> 

.2.2 

2d  per. 
3d  per. 

»g«»j;  }u»a3Jj 

1    3SU»X   >»"</ 

JO  »;tMpjij 

1  »su»j,»inrn^ 

160 


PARADIGM   OF  A  STRONG   VERB 


e      SI 
«3      e3 

□  MOM       M 


O  V  Q 

>  >  > 

c6        ^        C3 
M       J3       M 

S  H  3  a  2  0 


•J3  fl  d  oj  :»  f^ 
1-^       .*^      ^ 


0)        > 

^      S      « 

ej  ^  p  c  g  0^ 
ff         P       XI 


m  a  > 

K   01    « 


(U 


9) 


J3 


J3  s  a  s «" 

.S?.>;  3  «•§.>; 


a 

•g      jq        MS) 

.ff  V  g  V  ca  ^ 


>     ^  11  3 
cj     2  >ja 

.^        g'M-O 

2  a^  cs  o 

3  «  «  >  O  w 

o  E:  3  S-a.b 

•as 


a     a 
2  >1  > 

3  M  o  M 

a  o  j,ja  ^ 

GJ-a   >    to    > 


>    « 


cJ  >j  cS 


s 
e 

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o 

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o 

O 

< 


> 


a 


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si 

QQ 


00 


a 

a; 

>      ? 

■ago 

5      3  o  S  4) 

Ja  r1— 4    0)*-^ 


>        «8 

c:  aja 
•a  «  3 
u.S  o  — 


0) 

a-fa 

>    V   > 


ts 


a 
a  « 

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a    ja     ^ 

T3        3  a   (S 

ja     ^  >  o 


13 
a 


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3  a) 


..Cja.l 


a 


J3      ^      •" 

_  M_  M=3  M 

"3  ars  a'S  a 

"■ag'a&'a 


M2 


c;>-<>a 

>  £:  3 


01 
>  0!   > 

a-^'a 

ja 


a> 


>.S  S.H  2.2 

„  Mg  Mo  M 


a 
01     a 

X>       01 

a     «     » 

O  CO        X! 

«  Mt)  m      m 

•«'> -'^^■> 

^•ag-M-^-a 
«   5   -S 


a 

to 
^      XI 


a 


-D  MT3  M'2  M 
*«  S  2  S^  S 

,,'m3"m3j'm 

fe     s    •« 


^•x   "^   S" 

a 

a      a 

a 

(will 
shai 
(sha 

a 

o 

M 

2 

c3 

give 
give 

OJ 

a 

^    > 

a 

a 
> 

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> 

'm 

—    —    3 

•a 

s 

5fl 

we  have 
you  have 

c5  a 

°M 

"Sn'^ 

a 

T) 

CS 

wesha 
give 

youwi 
give 

they  w 
give 

« 

X3 

m  o 

JS  a 

J3  St3 

"2 

A 

3 

o 
ja 

a  > 

■a-a 

&M 

ja 
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thou 

giv 

he  ha 

J3 

1 

3 
o 

& 

5 

ji  i  i 

1^ 

a 

a 

•gt  R 

li 

a  a 

Si 

"3  0. 

o> 
Q. 

0) 

O. 

3  m      T3      •« 

Pl^ 

-o 

•a 

3  to       t) 

•o 

M.k:> 

TS       T3 

3  a 

T3 

"a 

■z"^       M        CO 

N 

m 

C-'l      c< 

CO 

.Sil 

N       CO 

^  *"' 

C^ 

CO 

fc 

in 

pL, 

CQ 

CL| 

»s«aj;  9m}nj 

»su»x  P>»/^J 

»iU9X 

}3»/j3dnjj 

161 

A  GUIDE  TO  GOOD  ENGLISH 


^ 

H 
>» 

&1 

< 

:2s 

O 

■J 

O 

^  s 

^-v 

J 

>.s 

< 

>-  cs 

2  S 

H 

2 

X  o 

3,  ^ 

O 

S° 

PM 

>J 

< 

>. 

f. 

t.^^ 

0 

■S2 

H 

^"3 

» 

M    O 

Q 

3.« 

2; 

<" 

0 

U 

•a 

V 

a> 

<u 

3 

H 

11  have 
giving 
shall 
been 

all  hav 
giving 

all  hav 
giving 
shall 
been 

shall 
been 

•S 

> 

1 

1 

2 

D 

•-a 

n 

I  sha 
been 
thou 
have 
givin 
he  sh 
been 

«  0)  0  a.i  S  05. 2 

o 

CO 

•4-1              *«-t                        «*.^ 

tt^     1*^        «*4 

o 

> 

Ed 

1 

be?  M)         60 

gM?sa      >  M 

ci 

> 

S 

1  have 
n  givin 
tvilt  ha 
n  givin 

,1  have 
n  givin 

(  shall  ha' 
been  givin 
u  shall  ha' 
been  givin 

ey  shall  ha 
been  givin 

a 

'a 

giving 
ve  beei 
ing 

a 

M.2 

^ 

§ 
tf 

3 

-^5  o  '  o     .■no 
«  o  3  «u      So 
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J3 

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> 

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cs     *j         <a 

-0           _^ 

o 

2 

I  shall  h 
given 

thou  wil 
given 

he  will  h 
given 

we  shall 
given 

you  will 
given 

they  wii; 
given 

> 

a 

«)  > 

>    OJ 

■a-a 

o  o 

11 

:ular 
per. 

per. 
per. 

•al 
per. 

per. 
per. 

ssent 
rfect 

ti- 

esent 
rfect 

1                  »»ti3^   P»/J3f/  3^njnj 

162 


PARADIGM   OF  A   STRONG   VERB 


.2  S 

'Si 

Si 

•a  a 

§ 

l! 

J3 

00    o 

9  ?  o 

n 

<;  « 

3  *j 

e^^ 

o 

a« 

1-^ 

1—4 

^ 

,3 

< 

.2 

a 
> 
'3 

I 

4 

?; 

'^  t- 

0) 

ja  'D 

H 

0 

X  o 
•^  e 

Oj  *J 

si  . 

*S  •""  .*^ 

lis 

Ph 

~^S 

g   M  OJ 

S-^  « 

>J 

<u 

■< 

z 
o 

S 

Is- 

T3"a 

3a 

o 

m  M  V 

(D^    OJ 

O 

HH 

t-H 

H 

a 

a 

S     pa 

« 

0) 

>- 

o 

> 

have  b( 
iven 

hou  hav 
ccn  give 
tc. 

1— t 

o 

>• 

o 

D 

n 

•a 

u 

Is 

Is  . 

•a 

D 

l_l    o 

HH    M« 

>-i  a> 

—1  M-^-J   O 

pq 

CO 

«*- 

*«M 

*-H 

i_       ..^ 

^ 

•-H 

OD 

a 

e 
>> 

ro 

> 

< 

[i3 

cJ 

« 

O 

0 

« 

< 

^_^ 

El 

o 

H 

H 

< 

■< 

C3 

O 

S 

•"«] 

Cki 

a 

M 

z 

^ 

H 

3 

t-H 

< 

. 

a             _  a 

a 

>       flS  j; 

> 

d 

a 

u 

J 

S   -as   l-a-a 

'3 

> 

a) 

Cl« 

•a     -.^     """^^ 

Si 

•a 

■^a- 

^ 

tH      eJ  tu      «  h  c3 

OJ  <u     . 

S 

I  am 

thou 
he  is  , 

we  ar 
you  a 
they  : 

"^i 

Ps 

>  >  a 

J3  a 

f  <u 

^  M  O 

*-^ 

l-<C 

1—1 

o  S      t"  '-'      S  ^  ^ 

—  2;       a;  o-m  Ss  o  <!' 

3  a     P.O.C-  c-aa 

■  -.-1        (NCCt-— iMro 

CO                     Cl- 

»SV3X   P13S»JLJ 

?sti3x  3xnpij 

3SU3X  »7}J^»-'d 

asuaj   pa/JSc/ 

A  GUIDE  TO  GOOD  ENGLISH 


3 

"5 


o 

O 


Oblioativb 

(Auxiliary 
must  or  might) 

Potential 

(Auxiliary 
may  or  can) 

I  might  have 
been  given, 
etc. 

Conditional 

(Auxiliary 
should) 

if  I  had  been 

given 
if  thou  had 

been  given, 

etc. 

if  I  shall  have 

been  given 
if  thou  shall 

have  been 

given, 

etc. 

H 
-< 
O 

a 

z 

progressive 
(Auxiliary  am) 

Past 
given 

EMPHATIC 

(Auxiliary  do) 

Perfect 

to  have  been 
given 

having  been 
given 

having    been 
given 

3 

I  had  been 
given, 
etc. 

I  shall  have 
been  given, 
etc. 

Present 

be  given 

to  bo  given 
being  given 

being  given 

Im- 
perative 

Infinitive 
Gerund 

Parti- 
ciple 

3tu3j,  foi/uidnjj 

tnax  f3»/-i»J  '-tntnj 

IV 

CLASSIFIED    EXERCISES 

Fill  the  blanks  in  the  following  sentences  with  the 
proper  forms  from  the  verbs  to  lie  and  to  lay. 

1.  I down  on  the  sofa.    2.  He the  book  on 

the  table.     3.  The  apples  were  ing  in  the  grass. 

4.  My  hens more  than  yours  did.     5.  She  is ing 

away  her  furs.     6.  He  has the  stone  without  mortar. 

7.  It  has there  now  all  day.     8.  No  one  ought  to 

in  bed  so  late.     9.  He  has  left  his  overalls ing  on  the 

floor;    let  them  there.     10.  I  have  out  your 

evening    clothes    on    the    bed.     11.  down    again. 

12.  WiUie   left  his  hat  ing  in  the  rain  all  night. 

13.  It  is  just  where  you it  yesterday. 

Fill  the  blanks  in  the  following  sentences  with  the 
proper  forms  from  the  verbs  to  sit  and  to  set. 

1.  Come  in  and  down.    2.  Does  my  hat  

straight?     3.  Where   did   you   the   milk   pitcher? 

4.  It  has  fallen  down;  it  up  again.     5.  I  can  see  her 

ing  on  the  porch.     6.  I  have on  this  same  rock 

before.     7.  I  told  him  he  should  have  it  on  the 

mantelpiece.     8.  Sand  may  be  used  to  make  the  pan 

level.     9.  She the  baby  in  the  high-chair.     10.  Each 

165 


A   GUIDE  TO   GOOD  ENGLISH 

cup  should in  its  own  saucer.     11.  Four  desks 

against  the  wall. 

Cases  of  Pronouns. — Fill  each  blank  in  the  fol- 
lowing sentences  with  a  word  chosen  from  the 
parenthesis  at  the  end  of  the  sentence. 

1.  I  saw  a  man I  thought  was  father,  (who,  whom) 

2.  He  dresses  better  than .  (I,  me)     3.  All  had  gone 

but .  (me,  I)    4.    I  nominated  Colonel  Stark, ,  as 

I  believe,  is  most  worthy  of  the  honor,  (who,  whom)    5.  I 

nominated  one I  thought  worthy  of  the  honor,  (who, 

whom)     6.  I  nominated  one 1  thought  ought  to  have 

the  honor,  (who,  whom)     7.  I  spoke  to  every  one  except 

.    (he,  him)     8.  They  accused    Agnes  nobody 

would  ever  have  suspected,  (who  whom)  9.  No  one  could 
be  more  conscientious  than .  (she,  her)  10.  The  Sopho- 
mores were  clever,  but  the  Freshmen  were  cleverer  than 

.   (they,  them)     11.  Father  bought  tickets  for  my 

brother  and  .  (I,  me)     12.  The  choice  lies  between 

and .  (I,  me,  he,  him)     13.  Send  it  to you 

please,  (whoever,  whomever)    14.  They  were  disputing  as 

to  should   walk,    (who,   whom)     15.  Who,    O   my 

master,  is  juster  than ?  (thee,  thou)  16.  The  police- 
man was  hunting  for and .  (we,  us,  they,  them) 

Shall  and  Will.— Fill  each  blank  in  the  following 
sentences  with  the  appropriate  form,  shall,  will, 
should,  or  would.  Where  possible,  fill  the  blanks 
first  with  forms  to  indicate  futurity,  and  second  to 
indicate  volition. 

1.  I  do  not  think  that  I  go.     2.  Tell  him  that  I 

not  go,  but  that  you .     3.  He  told  me  that  he 

not  be  there,  but  that  she .    4.  If  they  do  not  help 

him,  he fall.     5.  I starve  if  I  do  not  find  work. 

166 


CLASSIFIED   EXERCISES 

6.  He tell  you.     7.  I  give  you  my  word  I not 

lie  to  you.     8.  I prefer  to  go  to-morrow.     9.  I ■ 

go,  and  Sam ,  and  Mary if  I  have  to  bring  her. 

10.  I  told  mother  that  I go,  and  Sam ,  and  that 

Mary  if  I  had  to  bring  her.     11.  He  feared  that 

he  be  too  late.     12.  You  be  in  time  if  you 

hurry.     13.  He be  paid  when  he have  finished 

the  work.     14.  You do  as  you  are  told  if  you  value 

your  life.     15.  I  see  you   at   church   to-morrow? 

16. you  dine  with  me  afterward?     17.  I ,  with 

great  pleasure.     18.  1  weed  the  garden  now?     19. 

Yes,  if  you .     20.  you  ever  have  thought  he 

would   look  so   old?     21.  Who  ■ have  thought  he 

could  do  so  well!    22.  If  I fail  this  couise,  I  

have  to  leave  college. 

Antecedents  of  Pronouns. — Correct  the  follow- 
ing sentences. 

1.  I  want  a  position  with  a  publisher  because  it  is  a 
literary  career.  2.  She  went  across  the  common,  which  is 
shorter.  3.  I  gave  him  my  shoes  to  clean  because  every 
Freshman  has  to  do  it.  4.  Every  prisoner  was  made  to 
surrender  his  arms  in  the  Provost's  tent,  whence  they 
were  taken  out  and  dumped  in  the  river.  5.  I  tore  up  the 
board  walk,  and  used  them  to  build  my  chicken-house. 
6.  Tom  said  he  saw  him  but  he  did  not  know  whether  he 
recognized  him  or  not.  7.  They  wouldn't  refund  any  of 
the  money  he  had  lost,  which  is  poor  policy. 

Dangling  Clauses. — Correct  the  following  sen- 
tences. 

1.  After  ringing  the  bell  persistently,  the  door  was  at 
last  opened.     2.  Our  headlights  falling  upon  a  frightened 

167 


A  GUIDE  TO  GOOD  ENGLISH 

horse,  the  emergency  brake  was  appUed  at  once.  3.  Ar- 
riving at  the  Grand  Central,  a  taxicab  took  me  to  my 
apartments.  4.  Although  very  small,  we  found  the  room 
sufficient  for  our  needs.  5.  Having  seen  your  advertise- 
ment, the  position  is  one  I  am  sure  I  can  fill.  6.  On 
removing  his  coat,  the  wound  proved  serious.  7.  If  in 
doubt  as  to  the  best  type  of  engine,  an  expert  should 
be  consulted.  8.  Without  any  investigation  of  his 
previous  experience,  the  appointment  was  unanimously 
offered  him. 

Coherence. — Turn  the  following  compound  sen- 
tences into  complex  sentences. 

1.  The  trains  are  always  dirty,  and  no  one  likes  to 
travel  on  them.  2.  I  met  Mr.  Thomas  at  the  Mansion 
House,  and  he  told  me  I  was  to  give  him  my  resignation  at 
once.  3.  Just  beyond  is  an  inclosure  which  was  once  a 
tennis-court,  but  now  it  is  covered  with  weeds.  4.  The 
touring-car  was  zigzagging  down  the  hill,  and  the  driver 
appeared  to  be  drunk.  5.  The  trees  were  dying,  and  I 
told  him  to  plow  the  orchard,  and  prune  them,  and  spray 
them  with  lime  and  sulphur. 

Make  the  following  sentences  coherent  by  sup- 
plying proper  connectives,  by  rearranging  the  order 
of  clauses,  or  by  the  use  of  parallel  structure. 

1.  The  poem  tells  how  they  started  on  a  voyage,  and 
they  didn't  stop  for  any  enticements,  always  pursuing  a 
vision,  and  some  thought  it  was  one  thing  and  some 
another,  and  how  at  last  they  were  all  lame  or  dead,  but 
they  kept  on.  2.  Coherence  is  when  you  show  the 
relationship  between  ideas,  or  making  the  clauses  hang 

168 


CLASSIFIED  EXERCISES 

together.  3.  He  thought  he  got  it  near  enough  by 
measuring  to  the  last  tree  and  then  guess  at  the  rest. 

4.  Thus  they  not  only  deceived  Mr.  Smith,  but  Mrs. 
Smith  and  me  also.  5.  We  were  filled  with  the  idea  of 
enjoying  the  day,  and  at  the  same  time  do  a  little  good. 
6.  The  Physical  Education  Department  gives  credit  for 
regular  exercises,  such  as  to  play  soccer,  walking  regular 
distances,  tennis,  canoeing,  and  other  games. 

Punctuation. — Compound  Sentences. — Punctuate 
the  following  sentences  correctly. 

1.  So  said  the  physician  in  his  prospectus  and  so  said 
all  the  citizens  of  the  city  and  there  was  nothing  more 
urgent  in  men's  hearts  than  to  be  properly  inoculated 
themselves  and  nothing  they  took  more  delight  in  than 
to  see  others  inoculated.  2.  Now  in  the  light  of  each 
other  all  the  touchstones  lost  their  hue  and  fire  and 
withered  like  stars  at  morning  but  in  the  light  of  the  pebble 
their  beauty  remained  only  the  pebble  was  the  most 
bright.  3.  He  made  a  gallant  fight  but  it  couldn't  be 
patched  up  he  repeated  his  denial  he  retracted  his  ad- 
mission he  ridiculed  my  charge  of  which  I  freely  granted 
him  moreover  the  indefensible  extravagance.  4.  Every- 
thing in  the  facts  was  monstrous  and  most  of  all  my 
lucid  perception  of  them  the  only  thing  allied  to  nature 
and  truth  was  my  having  to  act  on  that  perception. 

5.  She  was  assured  when  she  came  up  to  the  spot  where  he 
fell  that  there  was  no  danger  he  had  but  dislocated  his 
shoulder  and  bruised  his  head  a  little.  6.  Any  coarse 
organic  matter  like  swamp  hay  brakes  fine  brush  or  forest 
leaves  may  be  used  as  a  mulch  but  it  must  be  drawn  away 
from  the  trunks  of  small  trees  in  the  fall  to  prevent  mice 
from  feeding  upon  the  bark. 

169 


A  GUIDE  TO   GOOD  ENGLISH 

Restrictive  and  Non-Restrictive  Clauses. — Punctuate 
the  following  sentences  correctly. 

1.  The  codling-moth  is  the  insect  which  makes  the 
wormy  apples.  2.  I  got  the  whole  story  from  Caroline 
who  in  spite  of  all  I  could  do  was  still  afraid  of  me. 
3.  The  pear-tree  psylla  is  a  minute  brown  aphis-like  insect 
that  flies  about  the  trees  in  early  spring  and  lays  its  eggs 
on  the  leaves  and  tender  twigs.  4.  The  man  wdth  a 
hooked  nose  who  had  not  spoken  before  now  put  in  a  word 
on  my  behalf.  5.  Your  friend  whom  you  have  known  all 
your  life  is  much  more  likely  to  understand  you.  6.  From 
the  egg  comes  a  small  flattened  aphis  that  feeds  on  the 
juices  of  the  tender  tissues.  7.  The  Kiowan  River  which 
cuts  across  the  edge  of  the  town  has  lately  been  deepened 
at  this  point.  8.  Once  upon  a  time  the  devil  stayed  at  an 
inn  where  no  one  knew  him  for  they  were  people  whose 
education  had  been  neglected.  9.  I  had  already  bought 
the  book  which  he  spoke  of  in  his  lecture.  10.  Tom 
handed  him  the  rope  which  proved  to  be  too  short. 

Miscellaneous  Sentences. — Punctuate  the  following 
sentences  correctly. 

1.  Stunned  and  a  good  deal  shaken  I  suppose  the 
mare's  knees  are  terribly  cut  she  said  to  Drummond  who 
merely  nodded  and  Seymour  remarked  fifty  guineas 
knocked  off  her  value.  2.  Alas  it  was  almost  a  demo- 
cratic outcry  they  made  her  guilty  of  but  she  was  driven 
past  patience.  3.  Oil  and  paint  being  a  little  thicker 
at  this  time  will  harden  on  the  surface  and  not  penetrate 
the  wood  as  much  as  in  warm  dry  weather  though  it  will 
not  spread  as  easily.  4.  Isn't  it  a  pity  that  when  every 
individual  in  the  community  can  see  the  wrong  as  clearly 

170 


CLASSIFIED  EXERCISES 

as  can  any  outsider  collectively  they  are  quite  incapable 
of  righting  it  even  though  it  threatens  them  with  destruc- 
tion of  their  common  welfare.  5.  Well  said  Gary  I  sup- 
pose you  know  what  you  are  about  he  paused  a  moment 
do  you  he  insisted.  6.  They  stepped  into  the  shallow 
water  and  ran  the  boat  high  up  on  the  white  beach  then 
the  boatswain  received  a  bullet  in  the  thigh  and  others 
sent  up  spurts  of  sand  and  water  all  about  them.  7.  So 
they  came  to  the  curtained  wicket  that  gave  upon  the 
court  and  there  the  vizier  heard  the  travelers  complaining 
in  all  the  cities  of  our  route  have  we  been  treated  like  the 
great  of  the  kingdom  and  wine  and  meat  have  we  had  in 
plenty  but  here  have  we  naught  but  pulse  and  brackish 
water  and  not  so  much  as  a  straw  to  sleep  on. 

Spelling. — Collect  one  hundred  misspelled  words 
from  yom*  own  work,  study  them,  and  write  the  list 
from  dictation.  Begin  a  new  list  with  the  words 
you  misspell  in  the  first  exercise,  and  continue  the 
practice  until  you  can  spell  correctly  all  the  words 
in  your  vocabulary. 


MISCELLANEOUS   EXAMPLES   OF   FAULTY 

ENGLISH 

For  Discussion  and  Correction 

Each  was  to  within  one  year  of  the  date  when  they  were 
fighting  in  the  forest  near  Athens  collect  one  hundred 
knights. 

Shakespeare  could  have  straightened  out  the  weak 
points. 

Such  fun  to  hear  the  -wind  rush  by  as  you  drop  down, 
and  then  the  shower  of  snow  that  flies  up  as  you  reach  the 
bottom. 

Up  and  down  the  coast  for  miles  we  go.  Sailing  when 
there  is  wind  or  paddling  when  it  is  calm. 

A  sentence  is  a  group  of  words  with  a  verb  and  which 
makes  sense. 

Flintwinch  was  her  business  partner,  although  the  lady 
was  its  real  head. 

The  active  voice  is  better  where  it  can  be  used.  Espe- 
cially in  useing  the  names  of  cities. 

A  well  inclined  young  man,  and  whose  good-breeding  is 
founded  on  principles  of  nature  and  virtue,  must  needs 
take  delight  in  being  agreeable  to  his  elders. 

Any  one  anticipating  having  plans  gotten  out,  buildings 
overhauled  or  repaired,  we  would  be  glad  to  have  you  call 
or  write  us. 

At  fifteen  I  was  sent  to  the  University  and  staid  there 

172 


EXAMPLES   OF  FAULTY  ENGLISH 

for  some  time ;   but  a  drum  passing  by,  being  a  lover  of 
music,  I  enlisted  myself  for  a  soldier. 

Although  near  to  Yale,  there  are  reasons  why  a  large 
university  is  not  desirable. 

When  three  years  old  we  moved  from  the  farm  to 
New  York. 

The  Earl  had  refused  at  the  outset  to  help  the  poor 
leper,  thus  refusing  to  do  what  Christ  had  commanded 
to  be  done. 

By  giving  my  family  names  you  would  be  none  the  wiser. 

This  year  was  the  most  enjoyable  of  any  of  the  preceding 
years. 

It  seems  that  Silas  was  subject  to  a  decease. 

Unity  is  that  quality  of  a  sentence  which  makes  the 
reader  feel  that  the  sentence  is  a  unit.  To  do  this 
you  should  keep  to  the  same  thought  throughout  the 
entire  sentence. 

During  my  summer  vacations  I  have  always  worked  on 
the  farm  and  driven  a  dairy  wagon. 

She  went  to  that  princess's  chamber,  whom  she  found 
already  dressed. 

Being  of  a  quiet  disposition,  my  leisure  was  spent  in 
reading. 

I  was  not  conscience  of  having  done  wrong. 

After  drying  our  clothes  on  brush  and  trees  near  the 
shore,  and  the  wind  had  gone  down  sufficiently  to  go 
safely  across  the  lake,  we  decided  to  push  off  from 
shore. 

After  this  year  I  advanced  study,  and  in  the  meanwhile 
acquiring  knowledge. 

While  yet  an  infant  my  parents  moved  into  the  suburbs. 

I  am  by  birth  a  New  Englander,  though  a  large  part  of 
my  life  has  been  spent  in  the  Middle  West. 

Later  in  the  play  when  a  letter  supposedly  from 
Benedick  is  put  into  Beatrice's  hands  and  how  her  friends 

173 


A  GUIDE  TO   GOOD  ENGLISH 

stuff  her  by  telling  her  of  Benedick's  love  in  order  to  make 
a  match. 

Growing  older  my  tastes  narrowed. 

He  had  been  able  to  get  a  place  on  the  Glee  Club  as 
first  base. 

The  melodrama  is  a  drama  in  which  the  action  is  such 
that  it  stirs  the  mind  to  emotions  by  the  use  of  vulgar, 
stirring,  and  tragetic  scenes. 

Being  in  moderate  circumstances  the  saving  is  a  decided 
help. 

This  only  goes  to  show  that  just  because  we  think 
democracy  is  all  right  that  it  is. 

Gareth  when  he  first  entered  the  service  of  King  Arthur 
was  put  in  the  kitchen  to  serve  as  a  nave. 

Also  the  article  about  the  Bible  where  a  man  spends 
three  years  looking  through  the  bible  to  find  if  slaves  are 
not  allowed. 

Samuel  Johnson  was  a  protege  of  learning. 

Perhaps  one  of  the  greatest  problems  of  man  is  life. 
For  centuries  different  questions  have  tried  to  be  answered 
concerning  this  fact,  but  always  a  doubtful  thought  has 
been  left. 

God  strickens  Job  with  boils,  thus  producing  him  to  a 
state  of  wretchedness. 

He  endeavored  to  cash  the  check  at  the  drug  store,  but 
the  olerk  refused  to  do  so. 

He  drove  away  in  the  team  with  the  sheriff. 

The  witches  showed  Macbeth  three  aberrations. 

While  he  could  not  find  a  publisher  who  would  intro- 
duce him  to  the  world  complete  he  was  cut  to  pieces 
and  produced  limb  by  limb  in  Fraser's  Magazine. 

A  new  party  had  sprung  up  called  Chartism. 

His  life  ended  at  the  Annan  Grammar  School,  he  came 

home  only  to  start  out  once  more. 

Carlyle's  parentage  dates  far  back. 

174 


EXAMPLES   OF  FAULTY  ENGLISH 

How  would  a  father  who  is  sacrificing  everything  to  give 
his  son  a  college  education,  if  he  should  perceive  that  his 
son's  college  education  had  been  a  failure  because  the 
latter  had  made  the  fatal  mistake  of  not  choosing  a  profes- 
sion or  if  he  had  chosen  one,  he  should  not  desire  to 
devote  himself  to  it  when  he  left  college  because  he 
didn't  like  or  because  there  was  more  money  in  some 
other  vocation. 

Each  helped  themselves  to  whatever  they  saw. 

I  knew  a  great  deal  of  the  student  life  here  and  that 
the  faculty  was  an  excellent  one  both  of  which  are  very 
important  questions  in  deciding  a  college. 

Leaving  the  road  the  old  observatory  attracts  the 
attention. 

Shakespeare  does  not  have  as  much  biblical  illusion  in 
his  work  as  Milton  has. 

I  removed  the  period  and  replaced  it  by  a  coma. 

The  lines  taken  in  pairs  were  rhythmatic. 

The  revels  he  refers  to  are  namely  the  murders  or  rather 
the  deaths  of  that  same  night. 

Clive  possessed  wonderful  courage  and  an  enervating 
influence  over  his  men. 

In  this  poem  the  author  has  a  madness  which  he  calls 
Maud. 

Jenny  Jones  was  accused  of  being  the  illegitimate  mother 
of  Jones. 

This  story  shows  the  effect  on  the  family  of  a  daughter 
flirting  with  another  man. 

Dr.  Johnson  was  a  very  bright  purple  at  school. 

Leaving  the  campus  and  strolling  about  the  town,  the 
most  interesting  places  are  the  Fraternity  houses. 

In  the  various  poems  with  "Lucy"  as  the  principle 
theme,  there  is  a  peculiar  charm  that  grips  the  reader 
within  himself,  and  almost  makes  him  like  to  read  them. 

L' Allegro  means  a  light,  gay  and  brilliant  poem.  It 
12  175 


A  GUIDE  TO  GOOD  ENGLISH 

starts  in  the  morning  and  spends  the  day  joyfully  and  at 
night  listens  to  poetry  and  music.  II  Penseroso  means  a 
sad,  mournful  poem,  which  starts  in  the  evening  and 
spends  the  evening  listening  to  the  nightengale  and  in  the 
daytime  sleeps  in  some  quiet  place. 

Then  she  lays  down  within  to  dream  sweatly  of  Au- 
cassin. 

We  did  not  suppose  that  you  would  want  nearly  so 
much  time  afforded  you  and  so  that  in  the  event  that  you 
could  not  make  a  cash  payment  and  had  to  close  it  with  a 
note,  that  it  would  be  for  any  longer  time  than  three  or 
four  months. 

Presuming  that  you  are  not  heavy  buyers  of  imported 
Scotch  whisky,  Irish  whisky,  and  Jamaica  rum,  and  no 
Store,  Club,  or  Sideboard,  no  matter  how  large  or  small 
is  complete  and  up-to-date  without  more  or  less  of  the 
above  at  prices  ranging  from  $3  to  $6  per  gallon  according 
to  proof  or  age,  we  beg  to  say  that  we  started  some  time 
ago,  being  direct  importers  ourselves,  to  supply  retailers, 
clubs  and  families  at  bottom  prices. 

Owing  to  our  having  four  clothing  stores,  and  the  large 
amount  of  goods  we  dispose  of.  we  are  obliged  to  buy  in 
very  large  quantities. 

Silas  Marner  was  in  a  deep  stooper  over  the  lose  of  his 
money. 

If  the  mohair  is  of  fine  quality  I  do  not  think  washing 
will  shrink  if  well  pressed. 

I  am  going  to  marry,  but  not  a  rich  man,  but  he  is  so 
good  to  me  and  I  can  trust  him  on  land  and  sea. 

Toward  the  end  of  his  days  Eppie  convinced  him  to  be- 
lieve in  God  and  mankind,  and  this  she  finnaly  succeeded 
to  do  and  before  long  Silas  was  attending  church  regular. 

I  enjoyed  your  talk  on  teaching  children  how  and  when 
to  eat  exceedingly. 

In  the  second  half  the  visitors  tied  the  score  t^\ace,  but 

176 


EXAMPLES  OF  FAULTY  El\GLlSH 

in  the  last  ten  minutes  of  play  the  institute  five  took  a 
brace,  and  coupled  with  an  injury  to  Algie,  rolled  up  a 
large  score. 

One  of  the  party  asked  him  to  let  the  child  in  his  care. 

In  the  first  place  Brutus  performed  a  tragedical  act  by 
first  killing  Caesar.  Which  would  not  have  happened  if 
he  had  not  been  the  man  that  all  the  rest  of  the  men  were 
waiting  for  to  start  things  for  they  needed  some  one  at 
their  head. 

While  I  am  writing  one  of  my  kits  is  playing  with  a 
mouse  he  has  just  caught,  while  the  angora  looks  on  in 
envy.  He  follows  my  husband  around  so  that  he  calls 
him  his  dog.  He  keeps  at  his  heels,  and  as  soon  as  he 
stops  rubs  against  his  leg  and  of  course  leaves  great  long 
hairs.  It  is  cute  to  hear  him  scold  if  he  is  displeased. 
He  is  like  a  peevish  child. 

Also  he  was  the  last  of  the  conspirators  to  die  and  he 
saw  all  the  rest  die  or  saw  them  after  they  were  dead  and 
in  some  cases  it  was  because  they  though  he  had  lost  the 
fight  so  they  killed  them  selves  rather  than  be  taken  pris- 
oners.    Then  after  all  he  killed  himself  to  end  things. 

Lycidas  was  written  because  of  the  sorrow  Milton  felt 
for  a  friend  of  his  what  had  been  crossing  between  England 
and  Ireland. 

I  have  a  damp  cellar  and  I  suppose  the  dampness  rises  to 
my  kitchen  or  would  it  be  better  to  vacate  as  all  my  tins 
and  flat-irons  are  rusted  so  I  cannot  use  some  of  them. 

Saw  your  request  for  sea-sickness.  I  know  how  you 
feel,  for  I  was  that  way  myself  ever  since  I  was  a  Uttle 
girl  until  about  two  years  ago. 

The  spirit  was  sent  to  guard  the  passers  of  the  wood 
from  Comus'  enchantment,  that  is  the  good  people  who 
like  by  God  for  what  they  had  done. 

A  few  of  the  stones  thrown  in  gives  them  a  nice  flavor, 

but  skim  them  out  before  you  can  the  latter.     Seal  tight. 

177 


A  GUIDE   TO   GOOD   ENGLISH 

Portia  is  like  the  good  Samaritan,  and  at  the  same  time 
utters  many  witty  and  pathetic  speaches  such  as,  "How 
far  that  little  caudle  throws  its  beans." 

Macbeth  sees  how  easy  it  is  to  get  the  thrown,  but 
becomes  fearful  that  some  one  will  come  between  him  and 
his  rain. 

Marner's  life  was  bare  and  dessolute. 

The  Earl  of  Bridgewater  was  about  to  possession  of  a 
grant  that  had  been  given  him.  His  daughter  was  going  to 
see  it  take  place. 

Lycidas  was  written  by  Milton  when  he  was  blind  in 
memory  of  something  he  had  constantly  on  his  mind. 

Emerson  praised  Sartor  Resartus,  but  Carlyle  still  be- 
lieved in  its  great  worth,  and  did  not  become  down- 
hearted. 

The  Prince  was  edicted  to  wierd  seizures. 

First  of  all  I  read  the  play  through  a  second  time. 

America  was  a  large  and  growing  continent. 

The  soil  was  well  tiled,  especially  along  the  boarder 
lands. 

The  result  of  the  duel  was  to  be  the  hand  of  the  Princess. 

This  person  is  also  a  Jew  by  birth  as  well  as  by  pro- 
fession. 

Burns  had  to  found  a  literature  of  his  own  before  he 
could  write. 

Carlyle  considers  Shakespeare  greater  than  Dante. 
Because  Dante  fought  the  battle  and  did  not  come  out 
victor.  Carlyle  means  by  this  that  Dante  did  not  enjoy 
life  as  he  had  no  home.  Shakespeare  lived  at  court  and 
had  all  the  pleasures  that  could  possible  come  to  him. 
Shakespeare  did  not  realize  that  he  was  great.  Carlyle 
also  says  of  Shakespeare  that  it  is  he  that  holds  England 
together.  They  could  lose  India,  but  could  never  lose 
Shakespeare. 

True,  he  is  weak  enough  to  fall  into  the  pools  which  are 

178 


EXAMPLES    OF  FAULTY  ENGLISH 

distributed  about  mother  earth  or  he  would  not  be  the 
man  the  author  wishes  him  to  be;  he  would  be  some 
supernatural  being  whom  we  could  in  no  wise  address. 

I  wrote  to  that  lady,  Dell,  but  I  know  not  how  much  or 
little  I  helped  her,  for  she  said  she  could  not  tell  me. 
And  there  it  rests.  You  say  your  little  girl  whines;  a 
disagreeable  element.  Do  you  know  what  I  should  do 
with  her?  I  should  let  her  whine.  Simply  be  firm. 
When  you  say  yes,  stick  to  it.  When  you  say  no,  stick  to 
it  also.  That  is  best  and  easiest  way  out  of  it.  I  believe 
the  more  one  talks  to  a  child  for  whining,  the  firmer  foot- 
hold has  the  whine  to  keep  step  with  the  child.  'Tis  just 
a  little  switching  of  the  branch  yourself  the  trunk;  like  the 
trunk  stand  firm.  Then  when  old  boreas  from  his  mad- 
dened fury  subsides,  there  comes  the  inevitable  calm,  in 
which  we  find  the  tree  in  all  its  natural  beauty.  Erect 
(according  to  its  natural  bent),  perfect  in  outline,  trunk, 
branch  and  leaf.  A  thing  beautiful  to  behold — and 
stronger  for  the  switching.  Strange  comparison,  is  it  not? 
However,  characteristic  of  Uberty. 

Democracy  began  her  reign  by  feeling  the  public  pulse, 
and  trimming  her  sails  so  as  not  to  collide  violently  v/ith  it. 

Letting  my  slave  have  my  sword  he  cut  off  the  fellow's 
head. 

Bidding  good-bye  to  his  wife  and  family,  the  trap  door 
opened  beneath  him. 

Denis  tried  to  explain,  but  the  old  man  would  listen  to 
none. 

HONOR   IN    ATHLETICS 

The  fellow,  who  plays  the  game  fairly,  is  generally  a 

person  who  is  respected  a  great  deal.     If  he  shows  people 

that  he  does  not  lose  his  head  and  keeps  on  playing  as 

hard  as  he  can,  he  can  be  depended  upon  to  be  a  dear  and 

close  friend.     Never  is  he  thought  any  less  of  if  he  says 

179 


A  GUIDE  TO  GOOD  ENGLISH 

that  the  ruhng  of  the  umpire  was  wrong.  Though  it 
means  the  loss  of  the  game.  He  will  be  criticized,  but 
people  will  respect  him  more  in  the  long  run.  It  shows 
that  he  is  clean. 

Dean  Briggs  says  that  one  thing  why  he  is  against 
baseball  is  because  a  certain  amount  of  professionalism 
has  crept  into  it.  This  is  shown  by  the  catcher,  who  pulls 
the  ball  down  to  make  the  umpire  think  it  is  a  strike. 
Why  is  tennis  called  a  gentleman's  game.  Because  every- 
thing is  clean  in  it  all  the  way  through.  If  a  man  is  a 
gentleman,  he  is  able  to  rectify  the  mistake  of  an  umpire 
by  hitting  the  next  ball  out  of  bounds.  Golf  is  a  game 
where  a  man  is  put  upon  his  honor,  as  he  keeps  his  own 
score  and  to  make  his  score  lower  would  be  dishonest. 

So  what  is  the  winning  of  a  mere  game  when  such  great 
odds  are  at  stake  as  honor. 


INDEX 


Abbreviation,  of  and,  31. 

of  company,  31. 

of  et  cetera,  32. 

of  military  and  civic  titles, 

31. 

of  Monsieur,  31. 

of  names  of  States  and  Ter- 
ritories, 31. 

,  of  professional  titles,  32. 

of  Roman  numerals,  32. 

of  sizes  of  books,  32. 

— —  of  terms  used  in  metric  sys- 
tem, 32. 

Abbreviations.  31,  32. 

and  symbols  in  note-taking, 

102. 

in  letters,  84. 

,  slangy,  70. 

,  unintelligible,  100, 

Above,  72. 

Absolute  construction,  49,  50, 
158. 

Abstract  noun,  138. 

Accent,  in  verse,  122. 

Accuracy,  and  consistency  in 
note-taking,  106. 

in  copying  quotations,  105. 

Accusative,  cognate,  149. 

Acknowledgment  of  sources  of 
material,  94. 

Active  voice,  change  to  passive, 
157. 

defined,  145. 

Added  pages,  numbering  of,  lOo. 

Adjective-compound,  29. 


Adjective,  defined,  139. 

modifier  not  to  be  used  aa 

adverb,  40. 

modifiers  of  subject,  147. 

nature  of  participle,  158. 

,  possessive,  142,  n. 

,  predicate,  148. 

-,  restrictive,  punctuation,  10. 


Adjectives,  capitalized  in   titles, 
16,  17. 

,  comparison  of,  143,  144. 

,  compound,  28. 

,  degree  of,  143. 

,  irregular     comparison     of, 


144. 


of  color,  29. 

,    order    of    as    determining 

punctuation,  11. 

Adverb  defined,  139. 

Adverbial  clause  incorrectly  used 
for  predicate  noun,  43. 

Adverbial  modifiers  of  predicate, 
147. 

Adverbs,  capitalized  in  titles,  17. 

,  comparison  of,  144. 

— — ,  not  hyphenated  with  ad- 
jectives, 28. 

Advise  for  tell  in  letters,  90. 

Affected  diction,  71. 

Aggravate,  72. 

Agreement  in  number  of  verb, 
151. 

Alexandrine,  134. 

AlUteration,  definition,  123. 

AU  right,  72. 

Allude,  72. 

Ahna  mater,  72. 


181 


A   GUIDE   TO   GOOD    ENGLISH 


Alphabetical  list  of  errors  in  dic- 
tion, 72-81. 

Analysis,  incomplete  in  outlines, 
110. 

Anapest,  definition,  124, 

Anapestic  lines,  128. 

And,  clauses  joined  by,  effect  on 
unity,  53. 

,  comma  before,  in  series  of 

words,  11. 

does  not  express  relationship 


between  clauses,  45-48. 
—  not  a  useful  connective  in 
outlining,  111. 

not  to  be  used  instead  of  to, 


72. 

,  when  written  &,  31. 

And  so  forth,  how  abbreviated,  32. 

"And  which"  construction,  48- 
49. 

Antecedent  of  pronoun,  138,  n. 

Ante,  joined  without  hyphen,  30. 

Anticlimax,  definition,  54,  n. 

Anti,  joined  without  hyphen,  30. 

Antithesis,  definition,  55. 

help  to  emphasis,  55. 

Apposition,  noun  in,  149. 

Appositives,  149. 

Appreciate,  72. 

Apt,  72. 

Arabic  numerals,  use  of  in  out- 
lining, 109. 

Argumentation,  process  illus- 
trated by  diagram,  116. 

Argumentative  outline,  112-118. 

Argument,  phrasing  of  proposi- 
tion, 113. 

■ ,  method  of,  112. 

Artny,  capitalization,  19. 

Article,  capitalized  in  titles,  16, 
17. 

,  defined,  140. 

Artificial  diction,  71. 

As,  adverbial  force  of,  77. 

,  meaning  of,  73. 

As  .  .  .  as,  73. 

As  follows,  quotations  introduced 
by,  14. 


Author  and  subject  catalogues, 
96,  97. 

Authors,  pen  names  in  quota- 
tions, 15. 

Auxiliaries,  future,  use  of,  36-38. 

Auxiliary  verbs,  146. 

B 

Back  of,  73. 

Bad  taste  in  diction,  71. 
Balance    in    sentence    structure, 
definition,  55. 

,  help  to  emphasis,  55. 


Ballad  meter,  131. 

Barbarism  defined,  35. 

Because  used  instead  of  that,  73. 

Because  of  instead  of  due  to,  40, 
73. 

Before  subjunctive  in  clauses  in- 
troduced by,  156. 

Begin,  74. 

Beginning  of  sentence  emphatic, 
53. 

Bibliographies,  use  of,  98. 

Blank  verse,  defined,  136. 

,    exercises   for   practice   in, 

128,  129. 

in  stanza  form,  136. 


Books,  faulty  English  of,  1. 

of  general  reference,  98. 

,  titles  of  in  Italic,  15. 


Branches  of  government,  capital- 
ization of  names  of,  19. 

Brief,  or  argumentative  outhne, 
112-118. 

,  conclusion  of,  116. 

,  connectives  in,  117. 

,  definition  of  terms  in,  113, 

115. 

,  diagram  of,  116. 

,  exclusion  of  irrelevant  mat- 
ter from,  115. 

,    facts    admitted    by    both 

sides  in,  115. 

,  introduction  to,  114,  115. 

,  origin  of  question  in,  115. 

,  parts  of,  114,  116. 


182 


INDEX 


Brief,  or  argumentative  outline, 
phrasing  of  proposition  in,  113. 

proper,  115,  116. 

— — ,  relation  between  headings 
in,  112. 
-,  structure  of  illustrated,  114. 


Burns,  characteristic  stanza  of, 
133. 

Business  and  personal  letters,  82- 
85. 

Business  letters,  form  of  salu- 
tation for,  S3. 

,  forms  of  complimentary- 
close  for,  84. 

,  examples  discussed,  86-90. 

By  in  compounds,  29. 


Can  but,  73. 

Cannot  but,  73. 

Cannot  help  but,  73. 

Canto,  definition,  122. 

Capital  letters,  use  of  in  outlin- 
ing, 108. 

Capitalization,  16-20. 

of  abstract  nouns,  18. 

of  army,  19. 

of  characters  in  books,  19. 

of  church,  20. 

of  club,  20. 

of  college,  20. 

of  compound  words,  20. 

of  foreign  proper  names,  19. 

of  geographical  sections,  17. 

— ■ —  of  government  and  branches, 
19. 

of  holidays,  18. 

of  /,  18. 

of  Madame,  20. 

of  Monsieur,  20. 

of  names  of  the  Deity,  17. 

of     names     of     important 

events,  18. 

•  of  names  of  important  peri- 
ods, 18. 

of  names  of  political  parties, 

19. 

of  navy,  20. 


Capitalization  of  O,  18. 

of  poetry,  16. 

of  points  of  the  compass,  17. 

of  proper  names,  16. 

of  qualities,  18. 

of  quotations,  105. 

of  sentence,  16. 

of  society,  20. 

of  special  days,  18. 

of  state,  19. 

of  titles  of  books,  16. 

of  titles  of  newspapers,  16. 

of  titles  of  plays,  16. 


Card  catalogue,  use  of,  96,  97. 

Card-dictionary  of  notes  made  in 
recitations,  103. 

Card  system,  use  of,  99-105. 

Card  used  for  note-taking,  ex- 
ample of,  104. 

Cards,  for  note-taking  on  read- 
ing, 104. 

,  use  of  for  notes  on  recita- 
tions, 103. 

,  use  of  in  note -taking,  99, 

100,  104,  105. 

Carelessness  in  note-taking  lead- 
ing to  apparent  dishonesty,  93. 

Carlyle  quoted,  96. 

Cases  of  pronouns,  exercises  in, 
166. 

Catalogues,  use  of,  96,  97. 

,  author,  96,  97. 

,  subject,  96,  97. 

Cesura,  definition,  123. 

Chapter  headings,  use  of,  98. 

Characters,  names  in  quotation, 
15. 

Chaucer,  stanzas  of,  133,  134. 

Chaucerian  stanza,  133. 

Choice  of  words,  67-81. 

Church,  capitalization,  20. 

Circumlocutions,  pompous,  trite, 
68. 

Classes,  grammatical,  of  words. 
138. 

Classified  exercises,  165-171. 

Clause,  definition,  147. 

,  dependent,  definition,  147. 


183 


4   GUIDE   TO  GOOD  ENGLISH 


Clause,  end  of  emphatic,  53. 

,  independent,  definition,  147. 

,  sentence  written  as,  42. 

written  as  sentence,  42. 

Clauses,  addition  of,  after  main 
verb,  45. 

as  parts  of  speech,  144. 

,  comparative  rank  of,  4.5-48. 

-,  correspondence  in  sound  be- 


tween, 55. 

dangling. 


168. 


exercises,    167, 


joined   by   and,   effect   on 
unity,  53. 

—  not  restrictive,  punctuation, 
10. 

- —  out  of  normal  order,  punc- 
tuation, 8. 

— ,  punctuation  of  restrictive 
and  non-restrictive,  exercises, 
170. 

of  purpose,  subjunctive  in, 


156. 


51. 


of  purpose,  tenses  in,  153. 
,  relationship  between,   44— 

separated  by  comma,  7. 

separated  by  semicolon,  7. 

separated  by  colon,  7. 

,  series  of,  after  main  verb, 

44. 

Clearness  in  outline,  how  ob- 
tained, 108. 

in  paragraph  obtained  by 

connectives,  64. 

Climax,  definition,  54,  n. 

in  sentence,  54,  55. 

Close,  complimentary,  forms  of, 
for  business  letters,  84. 

Cluh,  capitalization,  20. 

Co,  joined  without  hyphen,  30. 

Cognate,  accusative,  149. 

,  object,  149. 

Coherence,  common  violation  of 
in  compound  sentences,  45—48. 

,  exercises  iUj  168. 

■ ,  faults  in,  arising  from  loose 

sentence  structure,  44. 


Coherence,  lost  in  long  series  of 

clauses,  45. 

of  paragraph,  64-66. 

of  periodic  sentence,  45. 

,  relation  to  unity,  64. 

of  sentence,  45-51. 

of  sentence,  definition,  44. 

of    sentence    destroyed    by 

misuse  of  participle,  50. 

of  sentence  destroyed    by 


misuse  of  pronouns,  50,  51. 
—   of  sentence,    correction  of 
faults  in,  44,  45. 

of  whole  composition,  65. 


Collecting  material,  93-106. 

Collective  nouns  with  singular  or 
plural  verbs,  151. 

College,  capitalization,  20. 

Colloquial  contractions,  71. 

Colon,  between  clauses,  7. 

,  use  of  in  compound  sen- 
tence, 8. 

in    salutations    of    letters, 


84. 
Comma,  between  clauses,  7. 

in  complex  sentences,  8. 

in  short  simple  sentences,  8. 

,  use  of  in  a  series  of  words,  1 1 . 

,  use  of  with  figm-es,  34. 

where  words  are  omitted,  13. 

with  interpolated  and  pa- 


renthetical expressions,  12. 

"Comma  sentence,"  42. 

Commas,  sentence  elements  set 
off  by,  10. 

Commence,  74. 

Common  noun,  138. 

Company,  when  abbreviated,  31. 

Comparative  degree  of  adjec- 
tives, 143. 

Comparative  rank  of  clauses,  ex- 
pression of,  45-48. 

Comparison,  expressed,  69. 

,  implied,  69. 

Comparison  of  adjectives,  143, 
144. 

,  irregular,  144. 

Comparison  of  adverbs,  144. 


184 


INDEX 


Compass,    points   of,    capitaliza- 
tion,  17. 
Compilation,  wrong  methods  in, 

93. 
Complex     sentence,      definition, 

151. 

,  punctuation,  8,  9. 

,   interrogative  or   exclama- 
tory, punctuation  of,  6. 
Complex  subject,  punctuation,  S. 
Complimentary  close,  forms  of,  for 

business  letters,  84. 
,  forms  of,  for  personal  bt- 

ters,  85. 
Composition,    whole,    coherence 

of,  65. 
written   illogically    as   one 

paragraph,  63. 
Compound  adjectives,  28. 
Compound  sentence,    definition, 

151. 
,  internal  punctuation  of,  6- 

8. 
Compound  sentences,  exercises  in 

punctuation,    169. 
Compound  verb,  7. 
Compound  words,  capitalization, 

20. 

,  use  of  hyphen,  28-30. 

Compulsion,  expression  of,  37. 
Concessions,  indicative  in,  156. 
— — ,  subjunctive  in,  156. 
Conclusion  of  brief,  116. 
Concrete  noun,  138. 
Condition  implied,  155. 
Conditions,  use  of  subjunctive  in, 

154,  155. 
Conjunction,     co-ordinating,     aa 

sentence  connective,  47. 

,  defined,  139. 

omitted,  7. 

Conjunctions  not  capitalized  in 

titles,  16. 
Connectives,  between  paragraphs, 

65. 

in  argumentation,  112. 

in  the  brief,  117. 

— — ,  choice  of,  47. 


Connectives,  list  of  classified,  47, 

48. 

in  note-taking,  102. 

in  outhning,  110,  111. 

in  paragraphs,  64. 

Consistency     and     accuracy     in 

note-taking,  106. 
Consonant,  tinal,  when  doubled 

before  suffix,  24. 
Consonants,    double  and  single, 

effect  on  preceding  vowel,  24. 
Construction,  absolute,  158. 

correction  of,  in  revision, 


43. 

of  clauses  and  phrases,  144. 

parallel,  49. 

,  shift  of,  in  sentence,  43. 

— —  unfinished,  43. 

weak,  passive,  56-58. 

,  words  or  phrases  without, 

42. 

Contractions,  colloquial,  71. 

Contradictory      statements      iu 
notes,  102. 

Contrast,  development  of  para- 
graph by,  62. 

Conversation,    paragraphing    of, 
61. 

Co-ordinate,  definition,  47. 

Co-ordinate  topics,  indention  of, 
108. 

Co-ordinating     conjunction      aa 
sentence  connective,  47. 

Co-ordinating  connectives,  Ust  of, 
47-48. 

Copula,  149. 

Correct  paragraphing  and  logical 
thinking,  61. 

Correlation,  in  outline,  how  ob- 
tained, 108. 

of  ideas  by  outlining,  107. 


Correlatives,    weak    use    of,   39, 

40. 

,  whether  .  .  .  or,  40. 

Couplet,  130. 

,  heroic,  130. 

Couplets  of  synonymous  words, 

69. 


185 


A  GUIDE  TO  GOOD  ENGLISH 


C!ourte8y  in  expression  of  com- 
mands, 37. 
Cunning,  74. 
Cute,  74. 

D 

Dactyl,  definition,  124. 

Dactylic  lines,  I'll. 

Dangling  clauses,  exercises,  167, 
168. 

Dangling  participle,  50. 

Daah,  use  of,  12. 

,  with  colon  in  salutation  of 

letters,  84. 

Date  line,  of  business  letter,  87. 

of  letter,  82. 

written  in  figures,  90. 

Dates,  how  written,  33. 

Days,  names  of,  capitalization, 
18. 

de  in  proper  names,  capitaliza- 
tion, 19. 

Declarative  clauses  in  interroga- 
tive or  exclamatory  sentence,  6. 

Declarative  sentence,  defined,  loO. 

,  punctuation  of,  5. 

Definition,  development  of  para- 
graph by,  62. 

Definition  of  terms  in  brief,  113, 
115. 

Definitions,  adverbial  clause  for 
predicate  noun  in,  43. 

Degree  of  adjectives,  143. 

Deity,  words  standing  for  the 
name  of,  17. 

Demean,  74. 

Demonstrative  pronouns,  142. 

Dependent  clause,  definition,  147. 

Details,  irrelevant  in  sentence, 
52. 

Development  of  paragraph  from 
topic  sentence,  62. 

di  in  proper  names,  'capitaliza- 
tion, 19. 

Diagram  of  brief,  116. 

■ of  process  of  argumentation, 

116. 

Diction,  67-81. 


Diction,  bad  taste  in,  71. 

,  errors  in,  alphabetical  list, 

72-81. 

,  stilted,  affected,  artificial, 

71. 

Dictionaries  as  sources  of  ma- 
terial, 98. 

Dictionary,  caution  in  use  of,  1,  2. 

,  consult  for  syllabication,  27. 

,  use  of,  21,  22. 


Different  from,  not  than,  74. 

Dilution,  efi'ect  of,  in  sentence^ 
59. 

Dimeter,  anapestic,  128. 

,  dactylic,  127. 

,  trochaic,  125,  127. 

Direct  discourse,  definition,  38,  n. 

Direct  quotation,  as  object  of 
verb  of  saying,  13. 

,  punctuation,  13. 

(lis-  added  wiihout  change,  25. 

Disagreement  of  subject  and 
verb,  43. 

"Display  of  the  verbal  ward- 
robe," 71. 

Division  of  words,  27-30. 

Double  notation  in  outlines,  110. 

Doubt  that,  not  what,  74. 

Draft,  first,  2. 

Drama,  quotations  from,  punc- 
tuation, 14. 

Due  to,  40,  73. 

E 

e,  silent  before  a  suffix,  23,  24. 

Each  other,  74. 

Ease  in  paragraph  obtained  by 

connectives,  64. 
ei  and  ic,  spelling  of  words  in,  22. 
Either,  75. 

Elegiac  stanza,  132. 
Eleiiitdt,  75. 

Elements  of  the  sentence,  147. 
Emphasis,  acquired  by  repeated 

word,  53,  54. 

,  definition,  53. 

on  beginning  of  sentences. 


53. 


186 


INDEX 


Emphasig,  on  end  of  clause,  53. 

,  faults  in,  ariaing  from  loose 

sentence  structure,  44. 

given  by  stress  and  pause, 


53. 

—  helped  by  balance  and  an- 
tithesis, 55. 

-on  idea  by  giving  it  space,  66. 

-of  loose  sentence  improved, 


54. 


in  the  paragraph,  66. 
in  the  sentence,  53-58. 

from   short   paragraph   in 

narration,  61. 

in  verse,  122. 

on  word  out  of  normal  or- 
der, 55,  58. 

Emphatic  places  in  sentence,  53. 

Emphatic    words    in    emphatic 
places,   53. 

Encyclopedia  as  source  of   ma- 
terial, 98. 

End  of  clause  emphatic,  53. 

End  of  sentence  emphatic,  53. 

English,  examples  of  faulty,  172- 
180. 

English  literature,  notes  on  reci- 
tations in,  103. 

Enthuse,  75. 

Equally  as,  75. 

Errors  in  diction  alphabetically 
arranged,  72-81. 

Esquire,  position  of,  84. 

etc.,  proper  form  of  abbreviation, 
32. 

,  use  of,  75. 

Events,  names  of,  capitalization, 
18. 

Evidence,  development  of  para- 
graph by,  62. 

in  the  brief,  116,  117. 

Examples,  development  of  para- 
graph by,  62. 

of  faulty  English,  172-180. 

Exclamatory    sentence,    defined, 
150. 

,  punctuation,  6. 

Exercises,  classified,  165-171. 


Exercises,  for  practice  of  versifi- 
cation, 128,  129. 

in   punctuation  of  miscel- 


laneous sentence,  170,  171. 

Exeunt,  75. 

Exhortations,  subjunctive  in,  156. 

Exit,  75. 

Explanation,  development  of  par- 
agraph by,  62. 

not  evidence,  117. 


Exposition,  method  of  finding  in- 
troduction in.  111,  112. 

,  purpose  of  introduction  in. 


111. 

Expository  outline,  107-112. 
,  introduction,  111. 


Expressions,     much-used,     trite, 
67-69. 


F 


Factor,  75. 

Fact   to   be   distinguished   from 

theory  in  notes,   102. 
Facts  admitted  by  both  sides  in 

brief,  115. 
Father,  75. 
Faulty  English,   examples,    172- 

180. 
Feet,  in  verse,  how  named,  123. 

,  kinds  of,  in  verse,  123-125. 

Feminine  ending,  126. 
Figurative  language,  69. 
Figures  of  speech,  69. 
Figures,  numerical,  use  of,  33,  34. 
Final  consonant,   when  doubled 

before  suffix,  24. 
Final  y  before  a  suffix,  25. 
"Fine  writing,"  71. 
Finite  verb  defined,  145,  146. 
Fitzgerald,  stanza   of   the    "Ru- 

baiyat,"   132. 
Five-line  stanzas,  132. 
Fix,  75. 

Fold,  joined  without  hyphen,  30. 
Foot,  in  verse,  definition,  122. 
Foot-notes,  form  of,  95. 
I ,  references  in,  95. 


187 


A  GUIDE  TO  GOOD  ENGLISH 


Foreign  languages,  notes  on  reci- 
tations in,  103. 

,  trite  phrases  in,  69. 

Foreign  proper  names,  capitali- 
zation, 19. 

Foreign  words  and  phrases  in 
Italic,  15. 

Foreign  words,  list  of  those  not 
Italicized,  15. 

Form  of  business  and  personal 
letters,  82-85. 

Form  of  references,  94,  95. 

Formal  invitations,  86. 

Formal  references,  in  the  text,  95. 

in  foot-notes,  95. 

Formal  replies  to  invitations,  86. 

Forms  of  complimentary  close, 
for  business  letters,  84. 

for  personal  letters,  85. 

Four-line  stanza,  131. 

Free  verse,  136,  137. 

Friend  in  salutations  of  letters,  83. 

Further,  75. 

Future  action,  how  expressed, 
36-38. 

G 

Generalities,  69. 

General  references,  94. 

General  reference  books,  98. 

Geographical  sections,  capitah- 
zation,  17. 

Gerund,  defined,  146. 

distinguished  from  parti- 
ciple, 158. 

modified  by  possessive  noun. 


40. 


,  syntax  of,  158. 

Go,  76. 

Good  and,  76. 

Good  use,  definition,  1. 

,  principle  of,  1. 

,  result  of  violation  of,  2. 

set  down  in  negative  terms, 

1. 
Got,  76. 
Government    and    its    branches, 

capitalization,  19. 


Grammar  and  idiom,  distinction 

between  them,  35. 
Grammar,  definition,  138. 

outUne  of,  for  review,  138- 


158. 

Group  of  syllables,  the  foot,  122. 
Guess,  76. 

H 

Had  liefer,  155. 

Had  rather,  155. 

Hackneyed  metaphors,  70. 

Hackneyed  quotations,  68. 

Handicap,  76. 

Hanging  indention,   108. 

Hardly,  76. 

He,  inflection,  142. 

Headings  and  subheadings,  out- 
line composed  of,  107. 

,  indention  of,  in  outline,  108. 

,  main,  in  outline,  phrasing 

of,  108. 

of  chapters  or  paragraphs, 

98. 

— - — ,  subordinate,  in  outline, 
phrasing  of,  108. 

Healthful,  77. 

Healthy,  77. 

Her,  77. 

"Heroic  Couplet,"  130. 

Herself,  use  of,  39. 

Hexameter,  dactyUc,  127. 

,  iambic,  126. 

,  trochaic,  127. 

Himself,  use  of,  39. 

Honesty  in  written  work,  93. 

Home,  77. 

Honorable,  79. 

House,  77. 

How  to  find  material,  96. 

Hyphen,  use  of,  28-30. 


/  capitalized,  18. 

,  inflection  of,  142. 

Iamb,  definition,  123. 
Iambic  lines,  examples,  126. 


188 


I 


INDEX 


Iambic  pentameter,  practice  in 
writing,  128,  129. 

Iambus,  definition,  123. 

Idea,  emphasized  by  giving  it 
space,  66. 

repeated  in  paragraph,  58. 

,  too  many  words  for,  59. 

Ideas,  correlation  by  outlining, 
107. 

,  preservation  by  outlining, 

107. 

,  subordination  of,  in  note- 
taking,  101. 

Idiom,  defined,  distinguished 
from  grammar,  35. 

Idiomatic  indefinite  expressions, 
39. 

ie  and  ei,  spelling  of  words  in,  22. 

Illegible  handwriting  in  note- 
taking,  100. 

Illegibihty,  3. 

Illustrations,  development  of  par- 
agraph by,  62. 

Imperative  sentence  defined,  150. 

Impersonal  letters,  86. 

ImpUed  condition,  155. 

Imphed  verb,  after  conjunction, 
41. 

Impropriety,  defined,  35. 

Inaccuracy  in  note-taking,    101. 

Incomplete  analysis  in  outUnes, 
110. 

Incomplete  thought  indicated  in 
paragraphing,  61. 

Indefinite  expressions,  idiomatic, 
39. 

Indefinite  pronouns,  143. 

Indented  fine,  quotation  marks  at 
beginning  of,  14. 

Indention,  hanging,  108. 

of  headings  in  outUne,  108. 

— • —  in  note-taking,  102. 

^^  of  paragraphs,  3. 

Independent  clause,  definition, 
147. 

Index,  how  to  use,  97,  98. 

to  psriodicfal  literature,  97. 

to  books,  97,  98. 


Indicative  mode,  definition,  145. 

in  concessions,  156. 

Indirect     discourse,      definition, 
38,   n. 
-,  use  of  future  auxiliaries  in. 


38. 
Indirect  object,  148. 

in   change  from  active  to 

passive,  157. 

Individual,  77. 
Infinitive,  defined,  146. 

"spUt,"  40. 

,  substantive  characteristics 

of,  157. 
— — -,  syntax  of,  157,  158. 
,  to  as  sign  of,  158. 

used  to  express  purpose  or 

result,  157,  158. 

,  verbal  and  substantive  in 

nature,  157. 

verbal    characteristics   of. 


157 

Inflection,  140-146. 

,  definition,  138. 

of  nouns,  140,  141. 

of  personal  pronouns  ,142. 

of  pronouns,  141-143. 

of  verbs,  144-146. 

InformaUty  of  effect  of  loose  sen- 
tence, 44. 

"In  Memoriam,"  stanza  of,  132. 

"In  reply  would  say,"  84,  87. 

Inspired  language,  future  auxil- 
iaries in,  37,  38. 

Intensive  and  reflexive  pronouns, 
use  of,  39. 

Intensive  pronouns,  143. 

Inter  joined  without  hyphen, 
30. 

Interjection  defined,   140. 

Internal  punctuation  of  sen- 
tences, 6-15. 

Internal  rhyme,   definition,   123. 

Interpolated  and  parenthetical 
expressions,  punctuation  of,  12. 

Interrogation  mark  for  interrog- 
ative sentence,  6. 

Interrogative  pronouns,   143. 


189 


A  GUIDE  TO  GOOD  ENGLISH 


Interrogative  sentence,  defined, 
150. 

,  punctuation,  5. 

Intransitive  verb  defined,  148. 

Introduction  to  brief,  114,  115. 

in    exix)sition,    method    of 

finding,  111,  112. 

in  expository  outline.  111. 

, purpose  of  in  exposition.  111. 

Invitations,  formal,  86. 

Irregular  comparison  of  adjec- 
tives, 144. 

Irrelevant  details  in  sentence,  52. 

Irrelevant  matter,  exclusion  of 
from  brief,  115. 

-ish,  color-adjectives  in,  29. 

It,  in  idiomatic  indefinite  expres- 
sions, 39. 

incorrectly     used     without 

antecedent,  38. 

,  inflection,  140. 

with  impersonal  verbs,  77. 

-,  possessive  of,  77. 


Italian  sonnet,  135. 
Italic,  use  of,  14,  15. 


James  I.,  stanza  of,  133. 
Jotting,  topical,  not  trustworthy, 
107. 

K 

Keats,  sonnet  of,  135,  136. 
Kind  limited  by  this  or  that,  39. 
Kind  of,  77. 
Kinds,  of  feet  in  verse,  123-125. 

of  fines  in  verse,  125-128. 

of  sentences  (grammatical). 


150. 


of  stanzas,  130-136, 


la  in  foreign  proper  names,  cap- 
italization,  19. 

Language,  figiu-ative,  69. 

Latin  prefixes,  list  of,  joined  with- 
out hyphen,  30. 


Lay,  77. 

,  exercise  in  the  use  of,  165. 

Legibifity  of  notes,  102. 

Liefer,  155. 

Lest,  subjunctive  in  clauses  in- 
troduced by,  156. 

Letter,  business,  form  of  saluta- 
tion for,  83. 

,  date  line  of,  82. 

,  signature  of,  85. 

Letters,   abbreviations  in,  84. 

,    business,     examples    dis- 
cussed, 86-90. 

,  impersonal,  86. 

-,  personal,  forms  of  compfi- 


mentary  close  for,  85. 
-,  punctuation  of  salutation, 


84. 

,  quoted,  punctuation,  14. 

,  salutations     of     begirming 

with  My,  83. 
Letter-writing,  82-90. 
Liable,  73. 
Liable  for,  73. 
Liable  to,  73. 

Library,  how  to  use,  96,  97. 
Lie,  77. 
,   exercises    in    the   use    of, 

165. 
Like,  77. 
joined    without     hyphen, 

30. 
Line  in  verse,  definition,  1*^*^. 
Lines,  anapestic,  128. 

,  dactylic,  127. 

,  notes  on,  made  on   cards, 

103. 


,  poetic,  how  named,  125. 

,  spacing  of,  3. 

of  verse,  kinds  of,  125-128. 

List,    alphabetical,    of   errors   in 

diction,  72-81. 
of  words  often  misspelled, 

25,  26. 
Literature,  notes  on  recitations 

in,  103. 
Ix)cal  usage,  2. 
Long  meter,  131. 


190 


INDEX 


Long  stanzas,  133-135. 

Long  vowels  do  not  occur  before 

double  consonants,  24. 
Loose-leaf  note-book,  99. 
Loose  sentence,  definition,  44. 
,  emphasis  of,  how  improved, 

54. 
•ly  added  without  change,  24. 

M 

Mad,  78. 

Madam  in  salutations  of  letters 
83. 

Madame  capitalized,  20. 

Magazines,  names  in  Italic,  15. 

Main  heading  in  outline,  phras- 
ing of,  108. 

Manuscript,  3,  4. 

Margins,  3. 

Mass.     See  Emphasis. 

Material,  collecting,  93-106. 

,  how  to  find,  96. 

May,  tense  of  in  clauses  of  pur- 
pose, 153. 

Measure  of  verse,  121. 

Mention,  72. 

Messrs.  in  salutations  of  letters, 
83. 

Metaphor,  definition,  69. 

,  mixed,  69,  70. 

Metaphors,  hackneyed,  70. 

Meter,  definition,  121. 

,  time  part  of,  122. 

Method  of  finding  introduction  in 
exposition.  111,  112. 

Metric  system,  abbreviations 
used  in,  32. 

Might,  tense  of,  in  clauses  of  pur- 
pose, 153. 

mis-  added  without  change,  25. 

Misspelled  words,  list  of,  25,  26. 

Misspelling,  habitual,  overcom- 
ing of,  21. 

Mixed  metaphor,  70. 

Mode,  indicative,  145. 

,  subjunctive,   145,  154-157. 

,  syntax  of,  154-157. 

of  verb,  145. 


Modifiers,  not  restrictive,  puno 
tuation,  10. 

of  object,  148. 

of   subject    and   predicate, 

147. 

Modifying  clauses,  9-10. 

,  definition,  9. 

,  punctuation,  10. 

Monosyllabic  words,  effect  of, 
unnecessary,  59. 

Monsieur  capitalized,  20. 

,  when  abbreviated,  31. 

My,  salutations  of  letters  begin- 
ning with,  83. 

Myself,  use  of,  39. 


N 


Namely,    quotations    introduced 

by,  14. 
Names,  capitaUzation  of,  18,  19. 

of  army  and  divisions,  19. 

of  days,  18. 

of    important    events    and 


periods,  18. 
of    foreign 


19. 


proper    names, 


—  of  government  and  branch- 
es, 19. 

—  of  political  parties,  19. 

—  of  seasons,  18. 
of  States,  when  abbreviated. 


31. 


of  States,  proper  abbreviar 
tions  for,  31. 
Narration,  emphasis  in,  61. 
Navy,  capitalization,  20. 
Nerve,  78. 
-ness,    added    without    change, 

24. 
Newspapers,  faulty  English  of,  1. 
,  names  of,  in  Italic,  15. 


Nominative  predicate,  148. 
Non-restrictive  clauses,  9-10. 

,  definition,  9. 

exercises  in  punctuation  of 


170. 


punctuation^  10. 


13 


191 


A  GUIDE  TO  GOOD  ENGLISH 


Normal  order,  clauses  or  sentence 
elements  out  of,  8. 

,  word  out  of,  55,  56. 

Northerner  capitalized,  18. 

Notation,    double,    in    outlines, 
110. 

to    indicate    correlation    in 

outline,  108,  109. 

in   outlines,    importance   of 

single  system,  109. 

in  outlining,  method  of,  108, 

109. 

,  purpose  in  outlining,  107. 

Note-book,  loose-leaf,  99. 

Notes,  numbering  pages  of,  106. 

on     recitations     made     on 

cards,   103. 

Note-taking,  98-106. 

,  abbreviations  and  symbols, 

in,  102. 

,  carelessness     and     dishon- 
esty in,  93. 

,  consistency   and   accuracy 

in,  106. 

,  illegible     handwriting     in, 

100. 

,  inaccuracy  in,   100,   101. 

,  indention  in,  102. 

on  lectures,  100-103. 

,  paragraphing  in,  101,  102. 

,  prevalent  faults  in,  100. 

on  reading,   104-106. 

on  reading,  form  of  refer- 
ences in;    example,  105. 

on  recitation ;  example,  104. 

on  recitations,    103,    104. 

on  recitations  in  hterature, 

103. 


,  references  in  lectures,  103. 

,  subordination  of  ideas   in, 

101,  102. 
,  theory  to  be  distinguished 

from  fact,  102. 

,  topic  sentence  in,  101. 

,  transitions,  connectives,  and 

summaries  in,   102 
,  unintelligible  abbreviations 

in,  100. 


Note-taking,  use  of  cards  or  shpa 

in, 99-105. 

,  value  of  legibility  in,  102. 

Noun,  in  absolute  construction. 

158. 

,  abstract,   138. 

,  collective,     agreement     of 

verb  with,  151. 

,  common,  138. 

,  concrete,   138. 

,  defined,  138. 

hyphenated     to 


name    of 
color,  29. 

— ,  inflection  of,  140,  141. 
■,  personified,    capitalization, 


18. 


— ,  possessive    modifying    ger- 
und, 40. 
— ,  proper,  138. 
— ,  verbal,  146. 
— ,  verbal,  gerund  as,  158. 
,  verbal,  infinitive  as,  157. 


Noun-compound,  28. 
Number  of  verb,  145. 
,  agreement    of    verb    with 

subject  in,  151. 
Number  of  words  too  great  for 

idea,  59. 

O 

0  capitalized,  IS. 

Object,  cognate,  149. 

,  indirect,  148. 

,  indirect,  in  change  from  ac- 
tive to  passive,  157. 

,  modifiers  of,   148. 

of  participle,   158. 

of  preposition  in  objective 

case,  41. 

of  preposition  distinguished 

from  subject  of  implied  verb, 
41. 

of  verb  in  objective  case,  40. 

of  verb,  defined,  147 


_-       . , — .J ,. 

Objective  case,  for  object  of  verb, 

40. 
,  for   object   of   preposition, 

41. 


192 


INDEX 


Obsolete,  2. 

Octave  of  sonnet,  135. 

Omission  of  words  in  letter- 
writing,  84. 

Omissions  in  quotations,  indica- 
tion of,  105. 

Omitted  conjunction,  punctua- 
tion, 7. 

Omitted  words,  punctuation,  13. 

One  another,  74. 

Only,  78. 

Or,  omitted  with  whether,  40. 

Order  of  adjectives,  significance 
in  punctuation,  11. 

,  normal,  word  out  of,  55,  56. 

Organizing  material,   107-118. 

Origin  of  question,  in  brief,  115. 

Ottava  Rima,  135. 

Outline,  argumentative,  112-118. 

,  exp>oaitory,  107-112. 

,  clearness  in,  how  obtained, 

108. 

,  connectives  in,   110,   111. 

,  correlation  in,  108. 

,  double  notation  in,  110. 

,  expository  introduction,  111. 

,  incomplete  analysis  in,  1 10. 

,  indention    of    co-ordinate 


topics  in,  108. 
— ,  indention   of   headings  in, 

108. 
— -,  method  of  notation  in,  108, 

109. 

— ,  parallel  phrasing  in,  108. 
-,  phrasing  of  subheading  in. 


108. 
,  phrasing  of   main  heading 

in,  108. 
,  position    and    notation    of 

headings,  107. 

,  purpose  and  value  of,  107. 

,  value  of,  107. 

Outlining,  107-118. 


Pages  added,  numbering  of,  106. 
of  notes,  numbering  of,  106. 


Paradigm  of  strong  verb,    160- 

164. 
Paragraph,    clearness    and    ease 

obtained  by  connectives,  64. 

,  coherence  of,  64r-66. 

coherence,  relation  to  unity, 

64. 


— ,  connectives  in,  64. 
— ,  development  of,  by,  62. 
— ,  emphasis  in,  66. 
—  of  one  sentence,  61. 
— ,  position  of  topic  sentence 
in,  66. 

— ,  quoted,  punctuation  of,  14. 
— ,  repetition  of  idea  in^  58. 
-,  short,  for  emphasis  m  nar- 


ration, 61. 
-,  simimarizing   sentence    of, 


64. 


61. 


-,  transition,  of  one  sentence, 

L. 

-,  unity  of,  63,  64. 

,  whole  composition  written 

as,  63. 
Paragraphing,  61-66. 

,  correct,  61. 

,  incorrect,  indication  of  in- 
complete thought,  61. 

in  note-takingj  101,  102. 

Paragraphs,  connectives  between, 
65. 

,  spacing  of,  3. 

,  transitions  between,  65. 

Parallel  construction,  49. 
Parallel  phrasing  in  outline,  108. 
Parallel  structure,  49. 
Parenthesis,  use  of,  12. 
Parenthetical  expressions,  punc- 
tuation, 12. 
Participle,  in  absolute  construc- 
tion, 158. 

,  adjective  nature  of,  158. 

,  dangling  or  suspended,  un- 
attached to  noun,  50. 

,  defined,  146. 

,  direct  object  of,  158. 

-,  distinguished  from  gerund, 


158. 


183 


A  GUIDE  TO  GOOD   ENGLISH 


Participle,  syntax  of,  158. 

,  verbal  nature  of,  158. 

Parties,  political,  names  capital- 
ized, 19. 

Parts  of  the  brief,  114r-116. 

Parts,  principal,  of  verb,  146. 

Parts  of  speech,  138-140. 

,  clauses  and  phrases  as,  144. 

named,  1.38. 

Passive  construction,  how  to 
avoid,  56,  57. 

J  objections  to,  57,  58. 

Passive  voice,  change  to,  from 
active,  157. 

J  defined,  145. 

Passive,  weak  construction,  56- 
58. 

Pause,  emphasis  given  by,  53. 

Pencil,  MS.  written  in,  4. 

Pentameter,  anapestic,  128. 

,  dactylic,  127. 

,  iambic,  126. 

,  iambic,  practice  of,  128, 129. 

,  trochaic,  127. 

P&r,  79. 

Per  cent.,  form  of  expression  with, 
34. 

Period  at  end  of  declarative  sen- 
tence, 5. 

Periodic  sentence,  definition,  44. 

Periodic  structure  of  sentence 
gives  coherence,  45. 

Periods,  names  of,  capitaUzation, 
18. 

Periods  of  time,  how  written,  33, 
34. 

Person,  agreement  of  verb  in,  152. 

,  of  pronouns,  definition,  141. 

,  of  verb,  145. 

Personal  letters,  82-85. 

,  forms     of     complimentary 

close  for,  85. 

Personal  pronouns,  inflection, 
142. 

Personified  nouns,  capitalization, 
18. 

Personified  qualities,  capitaUza- 
tion, 18. 


Petrarchan  sonnet,  135. 

Phrase,  definition,   147. 

Phrases,  foreign,  in  Italic,  15. 

,  not    restrictive,     punctua- 
tion, 10. 

,  notes  on,   made  on  cards, 

103. 

— — •  as  parts  of  speech,  144. 

,  trite,  67,  68. 

-,    trite,  in  foreign  languages, 


69. 

—  and     words     without     con- 
struction in  the  sentence,  42. 
and    words    to    be    put    in 


Italic,  15. 

Phrasing,  parallel,  in  outline,  108. 

Places,  emphatic,  in  sentence,  53. 

Platitudes,  69. 

Plural,  formation  of,  23. 

,  words  in  o,  23. 

,  words  in  quy  and  y,  23. 

Poetry,  capitalization,  16. 

,  nature  of,  121. 

,  punctuation  of  quotations 

from,  14. 

Points  of  the  compass,  capitali- 
zation, 17. 

,  how  hyphenated,  30. 

Political  parties,  names  capital- 
ized, 19. 

Position  of  headings  in  outline, 
107. 

Position  of  topic  sentence  in  para- 
graph, 66. 

Positive  degree  of  adjectives, 
143. 

Possessive  adjective,  142,  n. 

Possessive  noun  modifying  ger- 
und, 40. 

Possessive  pronoun,  142,  n. 

Prayers,  subjunctive  in,  156. 

pre  joined  without  hyphen,  30. 

Predicate  adjective,  148. 

Predicate,  definition,  147. 

,  modifiers  of,  147. 

nominative,   148. 

noun,  adverbial  clause  in- 
correctly used  for,  43. 


194 


INDEX 


Prefixes  added  without  change, 
25. 

Preposition,  defined,  139. 

not  capitalized  in  titles,  16. 

,  object  of,  in  objective  case, 

41. 

,  object     of,    distinguished 

from  subject  of  implied  verb, 
41. 

— - — •,  redundancy  of  in  common 
phrases,  60 

Pretty  for  rather,  79. 

Principal  parts  of  verb,  146. 

Printers'    rules    for    division    of 
words,  27. 

Promise,  future  auxiliary  in,  36. 

Pronoun,    in   absolute   construc- 
tion, 158. 

,  defined,  138. 

■  /  capitalized,  18. 

,  possessive,  142,  n. 

— • — ,  referring  to  implied  noun, 
50,  51. 

Pronouns,  antecedents  of,  exer- 
cises, 167. 

,  cases,  exercises  in,  166. 

,  classification  and  inflection, 

141-143. 

,  demonstrative,  142. 

,  gender  of,  defined,  141,  142. 

— — ,  indefinite,   143. 

-,  indefinite  and  reflexive,  use 


of,  39. 

,  intensive,  143. 

,  interrogative,  143. 

,  not  to  be  omitted  in  letter- 
writing,   84. 

,  person  of,  defined,  141. 

,  personal,  inflection,  142. 

— — -,  reflexive,  143. 

— — -,  relative,  142. 

"Proof-reader's  eye,"  2. 

Proper  names,  foreign,  capitali- 
zation, 19. 

Proper  noun,  138. 

Prophetic  language,  future  auxil- 
iaries in,  37,  38. 

Proposition,  79. 


Proposition,  in  argument,  112, 
113. 

Prosody,  121-137. 

Proverbs,  69. 

Punctuation,  5-15. 

an  aid  to  expression,  5. 

of  complex  sentences,  8,  9. 

,  compound  sentences,  ex- 
ercises, 169. 

,  where  conjunction  is  omit- 
ted, 7. 

of  declarative  sentence,   5. 

of  exclamatory  sentence,  6. 

,  internal,  of  sentences,  6-15. 

of  interpolated  and  paren- 


thetical expressions,  12. 

—  of  interrogative  sentence,  5. 
— ,  long,  complex  subject,  8. 

—  of  modifying  clauses,  10. 
of  non-restrictive  modifiers. 


10. 

—  of  quotation  within  quota- 
tion, 14. 

—  of  quotations,  13,  14. 

—  in  quotations,  accuracy  in 
copying,  105. 

of  quotations  from  drama. 


14. 


—  of  quoted  letters,  14. 

—  of  quoted  paragraph,  14. 

—  of  quoted  stanza,  14. 

—  of  restrictive  adjective,  10. 

—  of     restrictive     and     non- 
restrictive  clauses,  9. 

—  of    restrictive    and    non-re- 
strictive clauses,  exercises,  170. 

—  of    salutation     of     letters, 


84. 


of  sentence  containing  de- 
clarative with  interrogative  or 
exclamatory  clauses,  6. 
—  of  simple  sentences,  8. 
— ,  terminal,  5. 

-,  test  by  order  of  adjectives. 


11. 


13. 


where   words   are  omitted, 
of  words  in  series,  11. 


195 


A  GUIDE  TO   GOOD   ENGLISH 


Purpose,  expressed  by  infinitive, 

157,  158. 
,  subjunctive  in  clauses  of, 

156. 
,  tenses  in  clauses  of,  153. 


Q 


Qualities,  personified,  capitaliza- 
tion, 18. 

Quatrain,  131. 

Question,  future  auxiliary  in,  36, 
37. 

,  origin  of,  in  brief,  115. 

Quit,  79. 

Quite,  79. 

Quotation,  omission  in,  how  in- 
dicated, 105. 

of  paragraph,  punctuation, 

14. 

within  quotation,  punctua- 
tion, 14. 

Quotation  marks,  honesty  in  use 
of,  93. 

for  titles,  etc.,  15. 

,  use  of,  14,  15. 

Quotations,  accuracy  in  copying, 
105. 

,  capitalization,  16. 

,  copied  in  final  form,   104, 

105. 

,  hackneyed,  68. 

-,  punctuation,  13,  14. 


Quoted  conversation,  paragraph- 
ing, 61. 
Quoted  letters,  punctuation,  14. 
quy,  plural  of  words  in,  23. 


R 


Rank,   comparative,   of   clauses, 

47. 
Re  joined  without  hyphen,  30. 
Reading,    note-taking    on,    104- 

106. 
Reason  followed  by  that,  79. 
Recitation,    note   on;     example, 

104. 


Recitations,  note-taking  on,  103, 
104. 

in  foreign  languages,  note- 


taking  on,  103. 
Redundancy,  58. 

of  prepositions  in  common 


phrases,  60. 

Reference  books,   general,  98. 

References,  to  be  carefully  noted 
in  lectures,  103. 

,  general,  94. 

,  form  of,  94,  95. 

,  form  of,  in  notes  on  read- 
ing, 105. 

,  example,  105. 

in  the  text,  95. 

in  foot-notes,  95. 

,  specific,  95. 

-,  vague  and  informal,  95. 


Reflexive  pronouns,  143. 
Reflexive  and  intensive  pronoxms, 

use  of,  39. 
Relationship  between  clauses,  44- 

51. 
Relationship  between  head  and 

subhead  in  brief,  112. 
Relative  clause  always  subordi- 
nate, 49. 
Relative  clause,  incorrectly  joined 

by    co-ordinating    connective, 

48. 
Relative  pronouns,  142. 
Repeated  word,  emphasis  on,  53, 

54. 

,  remedy  for,  54. 


Repetition,  58-60. 

of  idea  in  paragraph,  58. 

of  word  in  sentence,  58. 


Replies  to  formal  invitations, 
86. 

Restrictive  adjective,  punctua- 
tion, 10. 

Restrictive  clauses,  &-10. 

,  definition,  9. 

,  punctuation,  10. 

,  punctuation,  exercises,  170. 

Result,  expressed  by  infinitive, 
157,  158. 


196 


INDEX 


Reverend,  79. 
Revision,  2. 

for    correction    of    connec- 
tives, 46-47. 

of  constructions,  43. 


Rhyme,  definition,  123. 

scheme  of  sonnet,  135. 

Rhythm,  definition,  121. 

Rime  Royal,  133. 

Roman  numerals,  as  abbrevia- 
tions, 32. 

,  use  of,  in  outlining,  108. 

-room,  words  in,  how  hyphenated, 
30. 

"Rubaiyat,"  stanza  of,  132. 

Rules  for  spelling,  22-25. 


S 


Said,  meaning  "already  men- 
tioned," 79. 

Salutation,  form  of,  for  business 
letters,  83. 

Salutations  of  letters,  beginning 
with  My,  83. 

,  punctuation  of,  84. 

Same  for  it  in  letters,  88. 

Same  as,  80. 

Same  as  a  pronoun,  80. 

Sayings,  trite,  69. 

Scansion  of  verse,  122. 

Seasons,  names  of,  capitalization, 
18. 

Sections,  geographical,  capitali- 
zation, 17. 

Seldom  with  ever  and  never,  80. 

Self  joined  with  hyphen,  30. 

Semicolon,  between  clauses,  7. 

in  series  of  words,  11. 

Sentence,  absolute  construction 
in,  49,  50. 

,  adverbial  clause  for  predi- 
cate noun  in,  43. 

,  "and  which"  construction 

of,  49. 

,  arrangement  of,  for  climax, 

54,  55. 

,  beginning  of  emphatic,  53. 


Sentence,  capitalization,  16. 

,  classification   according   to 

structure,  150. 

,  clause  standing  as,  42. 

,  coherence  of,  45. 

-,  coherence     destroyed      by 


dangling  participle,  50. 
— ,  colloquial     effect    of   loose 

structure,  44. 
— ,  "comma,"  42. 
— ,  compound,  definition,  151. 
-,  compound,      exercises      in 


punctuation  of,  169. 

— ,  compound,   internal   punc- 
tuation of,  6,  8. 

— ,  complex,  definition,  151. 

— ,    complex,    punctuation,    8, 


— ,  connectives,  47,  48. 

— ,  declarative,  defined,    150. 

— ,  declarative,  punctuation  of, 

5. 

— ,  definition,  146. 
— ,  disagreement     of     subject 

and  verb  in,  43. 
-,  effect  of  unnecessary  words 


in,  59. 
— ,  elements  of,  147. 

elements    out     of    normal 


order,  8. 
— ,  emphasis    helped    by    bal- 
ance, 55. 
-,  emphasis    helped    by    an- 


tithesis, 55. 
— ,  empahtic  places  in,  53. 
— ,  end  of  emphatic,  53. 
— ,  exclamatory,  defined,   150. 
— ,  exclamatory,     punctuation 

of,  6. 
-,  faults  in  arising  from  loose- 


ness, 44. 

— ,  imperative,   defined,    150. 

— ,  informality  of  loose  struc- 
ture, 44. 

— ,  interrogative,  defined,  150. 
-,  interrogtive,     punctuation 


of,  5. 
— ,  irrelevant  details  in,  52. 


197 


A  GUIDE  TO  GOOD  ENGLISH 


Sefltence,  lacking  unity,  remedy 
for,  52. 

,  loose,  definition,  44. 

,  loose,  emphasis  improved, 

54 

,  loose,  not  emphatic,  44. 

,  looseness  of  structure,  44. 

,  needless  shift  of  construc- 
tion in,  49. 
-,  needless  shift  of  subject  in, 


52. 


33 


-,  not  to  begin  with  figures, 

5 

-,  a  paragraph  long,  61. 

-,  parallel  structure  of,  49. 

-,  periodic,  definition,  44. 

-,  periodic  structure  of,  45. 

-,  predicate     of,      definition. 


147. 


— ,  rank  of  relative  clause  in, 

49. 
— ,   relationship     between 

clauses  of,  44-51. 
— ,  repetition  of  word  in,  58. 
— ,  shift    of    construction    in, 


43. 


64. 


-,  simple,  defined,  150. 
-,  simple,  punctuation  of,  8. 
-,  subject  of,  definition,   147. 
-,  summarizing,  of  paragraph. 


— ,  suspense  of  meaning  of,  44. 

— ,  topic,  development  of  para- 
graph from,  62. 

— ,  topic,  in  note-taking,   101. 

— ,  topic,  position  of,  in  para- 
graph, 66. 

- — ■,  topic,     relation 


to     para- 
graph unity,  63,  64. 
-,  unfinished  constructions  in. 


43. 


-,  unity  of,  45. 
-,  unity     lost     in 


series  of 
clauses  joined  by  ands,  53. 

— ,  violation  of  unity  in,  51-53. 

— ,  words  or  phrases  without 
construction  in,  42. 

— ,  written  as  a  clause,  42. 


Sentences,  42-57. 

,  exercises  in  punctuation  of, 

170. 


15. 


-,  internal  punctuation  of,  6- 

-,  kinds    of     ( grammatical ), 
150. 
- — -,  spacing  of,  3. 

-,  terminal  punctuations  of,  5. 


Sequence  of  tenses,  152-154. 

Series,  words  in,  punctuation,  11. 

Sestette  of  sonnet,  135. 

Set,  80. 

Set,  exercises  in  the  use  of,  165, 
166. 

Seven-hne  stanza,  133. 

Shakespearian  sonnet,  135. 

Shall,  exercises  in  the  use  of,  166. 

and  will,  use  of,  36-38. 

She^  inflection,  142. 

Shift  of  construction  in  sentence, 
49. 

Shift  of  subject  in  sentence,  52. 

Ships,  names  in  Italic,  15. 

Short  meter,  131. 

Short  sentences,  complex,  punc- 
tuation, 8. 

—,  compound,  punctuation,  7. 

Short  vowels,  before  single  con- 
sonants, 24. 

,  before  double   consonants, 

24. 

Shovld,  use  of  to  express  futurity, 
36,  38. 

,  tense  in  clauses  of  purpose, 

153. 

Signature  of  letter,  position  of, 
85. 

,  form  of,  85. 

Signor  capitalized,  20. 

Silent  e,  when  dropped  before 
suffix,  23. 

,  when  retained  before  suf- 
fix, 24. 

Simile,  definition,  69. 

Simple  futurity,  defined,  36. 

,  how  expressed,  36-38. 

Simple  sentence,  defined,  150. 


198 


INDEX 


Simple  sentences,  punctuation 
of,  8. 

Singleness  of  thought  and  struc- 
ture of  sentence,  44. 

Sit,  80. 

,  exercises  in  the  use  of,  165, 

166. 

Six-line  stanzas,  133. 

Sizes  of  boolcs,  abbreviations  of 
names  of,  32. 

Slang,  2,  70. 

Slangy  abbreviations,  70. 

So  .  .  .  as,  73. 

So,  weak  use  of,  39,  40. 

Society,  capitalization,  20. 

Solecism,  defined,  35. 

Sonnet,  135,  136. 

Sort  of,  77. 

Sources  of  material,  acknowledg- 
ment of,  94. 

Southerner  capitalized,  18. 

Space  given  to  idea  for  em- 
phasis, 66. 

Spacing,  3. 

Speaker,  paragraph  to  each  in 
conversation,  61. 

Speakers  and  writers,  best,  1. 

Special  issue,  113,  115. 

Speech,  figures  of,  69. 

,  parts  of,  138-140. 

Spelling,  21-23. 

in  copying  quotations,  105. 

— — -,  exercises  in,  171. 

,  rules  for,  22-25. 

Spenserian  stanza,  134. 

"Split  infinitive,"  40. 

Spondee,  definition,  124. 

Stacks,  of  library,  96. 

Stanza,  in  blank  verse,  136. 

—  of  Burns,  133. 

— — ,  Chaucerian,  133. 

-,  definition,  122. 

-,  elegiac,  132. 

,  five-hne,  132. 

,  four-hne,   131. 

of  "In  Memoriam,"  132. 

,  kinds  of,  130-136. 

,  long,   133-135. 


Stanza,  punctuation  of  quoted, 
14. 

of  the  "Rubaiyat,"  132. 

,  seven-line,  133. 

,  six-line,  133. 

,  Spenserian,   134. 

Stanzas,  three-line,  130. 

Start,  80. 

State,  capitalization,  19. 

Statements,contradictory  in  notes, 
102. 

States  and  Territories,  names  of, 
when  abbreviated,  proper  ab- 
breviations for,  31. 

Stilted  diction,  71. 

Stress,  emphasis  given  by,  53. 
in  verse,  122. 


Strong  verb,  definition,  145. 
,  paradigm  of,  160-164. 


Structure  of  brief  illustrated,  114. 

Structure,  parallel,  49. 

Sub  joined  without  hyphen,  30. 

Subheading  in  outline,  phrasing 
of,  108. 

Subject  catalogues,  96. 

Subject,  complex,  punctuation,  8. 

— — ,  disagreement  with  verb,  43. 

of  implied  verb  distin- 
guished from  object  of  preposi- 
tion, 41. 

,  modifiers  of,  147. 

— —  of  sentence,  definition,  147. 
-,  shift  of,  in  sentence,  52. 


Subjunctive,  in  clauses  intro- 
duced by  before,  lest,  that, 
until,  156. 

^  in  clauses  of  purpose,  156. 

in  concessions,  156. 

in  conditions,  154,  155. 

in  exhortations,  156. 

mode,  145. 

in  prayers,  156. 

,  use  of,  154-157. 

in  wishes,  156. 


Subordinate   clauses,   restrictive, 

punctuation  of,  10. 
Subordinating  connectives,  Ust  of, 

47-48. 


199 


A  GUIDE  TO  GOOD   ENGLISH 


Subordination  of  ideas  in  note- 
taking,  101. 

Substantive,  138,  139 

"Substitution"  in  verse,  124,  125. 

Sttch,  weak  use  of,  39,  40. 

Suffix,  added  to  words  in  y,  25. 

beginning  with  a  vowel,  23. 

beginning   with    consonant, 

24. 

Suffixes  added  without  change, 
24. 

Summaries  in  note-taking,  102. 

Summarizing  sentence  of  para- 
graph, 64. 

Super  joined  without  hyphen,  30. 

Superlative  degree  of  adjectives, 
143. 

Suspended  participle,  50. 

Suspense  of  meaning  in  sentence, 
44. 

Syllabication,  27-30. 

Syllable,  unaccented,  hne  ending 
in,  126. 

Syllables,  group  of,  the  metrical 
foot,  122. 

Symbols  in  note-taking,   102. 

Synonymous  words  in  couplets, 
59 

Syntax,  146-158. 

,  definition,  138. 

of  the  verb,  151-158. 


Table  of  contents,  use  of,  98. 

Take  and,  80. 

Tautology,  58-60. 

Team,  80. 

Tend,  80. 

Tennyson,  stanza  of  "In  Memo- 
nam,"  132. 

Tense  of  verb,  145. 

Tenses,  sequence  of,  152-154. 

of  verb,  syntax,  152-154. 

Terminal  punctuation  for  all  sen- 
tences, 5. 

Twins,  definition  of,  in  brief, 
113,  115. 


Terza  rima,  130. 
Tetrameter,   anapestic,   128. 

,  dactylic,  127. 

,  iambic,  126. 

,  trochaic,   127. 

Textual  notes  made  on  cards,  103. 
That,  after  reason,  73. 

limiting  kind,  39. 

omitted  with  correlative  so, 

39,  40. 
omitted 


with     correlative 
such,  39,  40. 
-,  subjunctive  in  clauses  in- 


troduced by,  156. 

The,  when  to  be  capitalized  in 
titles,  17. 

The  following,  quotations  intro- 
duced by,  14. 

Theory  to  be  distinguished  from 
fact  in  notes,  102. 

They  for  everyone,  81. 

This  limiting  kind,  39. 

Those,  weak  use  of,  39,  40. 

Thou,  inflection,  142. 

Thought,  incomplete,  indicated 
by  paragraphing,  61. 

Three-Une  stanzas,  130. 

Time-beats  of  verse,  correspond- 
ence with  word-accent,  122, 
123. 

Time  of  day,  how  written,  33. 

Time-divisions  of  verse,   121. 

Time-part  of  meter,  122. 
of  verse,  122. 


Title,  of  character  in  fiction,  cap- 
italization, 19. 

,  position  of,  4. 

Titles,  abbreviations  of,  31,  32. 
,  personal,  capitalization  of, 


17. 

in  quotation  marks,  15. 

To  as  sign  of  infinitive,  158. 
Topical  jotting  not  trustworthy, 

107. 
Topics,  co-ordinate,  indention  of, 

108. 
Topic  sentence,  development  of 

paragraph  from,  62. 


200 


INDEX 


Topic  sentence,  in  note -taking, 
101. 

,  position  in  paragraph,  66. 

,  relation  to  paragraph  uni- 
ty, 63,  64. 

to  wit,  quotations  introduced  by, 
14. 

Transition  paragraph  of  one  sen- 
tence, 61 

Transitions  anJ  connectives  ia 
note-taking,  102. 

between   paragraphs,    65 

Transitive  verb  detined,   148. 

Transitive  verbs,  change  from 
active  to  passive,  157. 

Transpire,  81. 

Trimeter,  anapestic,  128. 

,  dactylic,  127. 

,  iambic,  126. 

,  trochaic,  127. 

Trite  phrases  in  foreign  lan- 
guages, 69. 

— — ,  hst  of,  67,  68. 

Trite  sayings,  69. 

Triteness,  67-69. 

Trochaic  dimeter,  125,  127. 

,  hues,  127. 

Trochee,  definition,  123. 

Typewriter,  value  of,  2,  3,  lOG. 


U 


Unaccented  syllable,  Une  ending 
in,  126. 

Unaccented  vowels,  determina- 
tion of,  in  spelling,  22,  23. 

Unemphatic  places,  words  con- 
cealed in,  54. 

Unfinished  constructions,  43. 

Unintelligible  abbreviations  in 
note-taking,  100. 

Unity,  destroyed  by  needless 
shift  of  subject  in  sentence, 
52 

— —  destroyed  by  too  many 
ideas  in  sentence,  51. 

destroyed  by  too  many  sen- 


tences to  one  idea,  51. 


Unity,  faults  in  arising  from  loose 

sentence  structure,  44 
lost  when    idea   is  divided 

between  sentences,  51. 

of  paragraph,  63,  64. 

of    paragraph,    relation    to 


coherence,  64 

—  of   periodic  sentence  inevi- 
table, 45 

- — •,  remedy  for  sentence  lack- 
ing, 52. 

of  sentence  lost  in  series  of 


clauses  joined  by  ands,  53. 

—  of  sentence,  44,  45. 

—  of  sentence,  definition,  44. 

—  of    sentence,    correction   of 
faults  in,  44,  45. 

violated  in  sentence,  51-53. 


Unnecessary  words  in  sentence, 
59. 

Unruled  paper  preferable,  4. 

Until,  subjunctive  in  clauses  in- 
troduced by,  156. 

Use  of  hyphen,  compound  words, 
28-30. 


Value  of  the  outline,  107. 

van,  in  proper  names,  capitaliza- 
tion, 19. 

Verbal  nature  of  participle,  158. 

Verbal  noun,  146. 

,  gerund  as,  158. 

infinitive,  as,  157. 

"Verbal  wardrobe,"  display  of, 
71. 

Verb,  agreement  in  number,  151. 

,  agreement  in  person,   152. 

,  compound,  7. 

,  defined,  139. 

■,  disagreement  with  subject, 


43. 


41. 


-,  finite,  defined,  145,  146. 
implied    after    conjunction, 

-,  inflection,  144-146. 

-,  intransitive,  defined,  148. 

-,  mode  of,  145. 


201 


A  GUIDE  TO  GOOD  ENGLISH 


Verb,  number  ot,  145. 

,  object  of,  147 

.  object  of  in  objective  case, 

40. 

,  paradigm  of,  160-164. 

,  person  oi,  146. 

,  prmcipai  parts  of,  146. 

,  strong,   definition,   145. 

,  syntax  of,   151-158. 

,  tense  of,  145. 

,  tenses,  syntax,  152-154. 

,  transitive,   defined,   148. 

,  voice  of,  145. 

,  voice,  syntax,  157. 

,  weak,  definition,   145. 

Verbs,  auxiliary,  146. 

,  capitalized  in  titles,  16. 

of  saying,  with  quotation  as 

object,  13. 
-,  simultaneous  in  time,  7. 


Verse,  definition,  122. 

,  distinguished  from  poetry, 

121. 
,  rhythmic  unit  of,  the  foot, 

122. 

,  scansion  of,  122. 

,  time-divisions  of,  121. 

-,  time-parts  of,  122. 


Versification,  121-137. 

,  practice  of,  128,  129. 

Very  as  adverb  and  adjective, 
139,  n. 

Very  well,  72. 

viz.,  quotations  introduced  by, 
14. 

Voice  of  verb,  145. 

■ ,  syntax,  157. 

Volition,  defined,  36. 

• ,  how  expressed,  36-38. 

von  in  proper  names,  capitaliza- 
tion, 19. 

Vowel,  short,  before  single  con- 
sonant, 24 

,  short,  before  double  con- 
sonants, 24. 

Vowels,  unaccented,  determina- 
tion of  in  speUing,  22,  23. 


W 

Want  in  the  sense  of  ought,  81. 

Way,  81. 

jomed  without  hyphen,  30 

Weak  passive  construction,  56- 
58. 

Weak  verb,  definition,  145. 

Went  and,  76. 

Whether  .  .  .  or,  use  of,  40. 

Will,  exercises  in  the  use  of,  166. 

,  use  of,  36-38. 

Wishes,  subjunctive  in,  156. 

Words,  capitalized  in  titles,   16. 

,  compound,  28-30. 

,  as  different  parts  of  speech, 

140. 

,  division  of,  27-30. 

,  emphatic,       m      emphatic 

places,  53. 

,  foreign,  in  Italic,  15. 

grammatically  classified,  138. 

,  list  of  commonly  hyphen- 
ated, 29-30. 
-,  notes  on,  made  on  cards, 


103. 


84. 


often  misspelled,  25,  26. 
omitted     in     letter-writing, 

omitted,  punctuation,   13. 
—  out    of    normal   order   em- 
phatic, 55,  56. 

and   phrases  to  be  put  in 


Italic,  15. 
—  or  phrases  without  construc- 
tion in  sentence,  42. 
-,  repeated,  concealed  in  im- 


emphatic  places,  54. 
-,  repetition  of,   in  sentence, 


58. 

—  in  series,  punctuation,  11. 
— ,  spacing  of,  3. 

—  standing  for  the  name  of  the 
Deity,  capitalization  of,  17. 

-,  synonymous    in     couplets. 


59. 


-,  too  many  for  the  idea,  59. 
-  imnecessary  in  sentence,  59. 


202 


INDEX 


WovM,  use  of,  to  express  futurity, 

36,38 
Writers  and  speakers,  best,  1. 


y,  final  before  suffix,  25. 
,  plural  of  words  in,  23. 


You,  indefinite,  81. 

,  inflection,  142. 

Yourself,  use  of,  39. 

& 

&,  use  in  firm  names,  31. 
&c  for  etc.,  32. 


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